Notes for Lecture 04

1. Notes for Lecture 04 Prof. Q

2. What is your perspective on argument? • Argument attempts o resolve issues between two or more parties. • Argument is a rational disagreement, but it can get emotional. • Argument can result in agreement or compromise. • Argument is angry people yelling at each other. • Argument is standing up for your ideas, defending them, and minimizing the opposition by being persuasive.

3. What is your perspective on argument? • Is argument important? Why? • What would happen if a society were to outlaw all forms of argument and, under law, all individuals were forced to share the same views? • What are some of the problems with this hypothetical society?

4. Definition of Argument • "The goal of argument is to bring about a change in the audience's initial position on a controversial issue. Depending on the situation and audience, at times this goal is achieved by an arguer who presents a claim along with reasons and evidence to convince an audience to agree with the position taken [What is often called 'the traditional argument']; at other times, arguers create the possibility of agreement by acknowledging different points of view and working to identify one view or a combination of views that are acceptable to most or all audience members [what is often called consensual argument]. (p. 5)

5. Under what conditions does argument succeed? • There must be an issue - there needs to be an issue that has not yet been settled, as well as potential for the issue to generate two or more views. Ex. Bottled water. • There must be an arguer - Every argument should have a person who is motivated to initiate the argument, take a position on the issue, obtain and consider information, and communicate their position to others. • There must be an audience - An audience for an argument - hostile, friendly, or neutral, should be willing to listen to or read and consider new views or perspectives. It should also be capable of understanding, thinking, questioning, discussing, and answering. • There must be common ground - Good argument requires the establishment of some sort of common ground. Lack of common ground leads to standoffs and fighting, rather than honest argument. • A forum - Arguers need a place to share their views. This can be a public place, a courtroom, a legislative assembly, magazines, journals, or even online spaces. • Audience outcomes - Successful arguments should produce changes in the audience.

6. Under what conditions argument fails? • No disagreement or reason to argue - when there is no real disagreement or uncertainty, or when there is no possibility of two or more views. • Risky or trivial issue - Some issues are too controversial or call for action that is too radical or for change that is too drastic. Other issues can be perceived as trivial, boring, or insignificant. • Difficulty in establishing common ground - Individuals who hold fast to their prejudices and are unwilling to listen to new information may dismiss evidence that defies their pre-conceived beliefs. • Standoffs or fights that result in negative outcomes - When standoffs happen, parties are more inclined to return to their original views rather than engage in honest debate. This may lead to strong emotions and verbal (or physical) fighting.

7. Types of Argument • Traditional Argument: • Public debate - public debates are often televised and the participants are most often candidates to public office, or individuals who want to persuade others to agree with a single view. • Courtroom argument - lawyers take opposing sides and present their case to an audience - often a jury - to persuade them to see the case in one way or another. • One to one, everyday argument - One needs to focus on the issue at hand and on the opponent as audience. • Consensual Argument: • Dialectic argument - Two or more people participate as equals in a dialogue to discover the best position on an issue. • Academic Inquiry - Its purpose is to discover through reading, discussion, and writing, new views, new knowledge, and new truths about complex issues. • Negotiation and Mediation - Two or more individuals employing argument to reach consensus on plans of action that solve problems. • Internal Argument - Arguments that individuals have with themselves.

8. Engaging with the Issues: When engaging with their issue, you should remember that: • The issues are compelling - Your chosen issue should get you excited about it. Ideally, you will identify with your issue. • The issue originates in dramatic life situations - Issues should not be based on "what if" hypothetical scenarios. They should be based on real-life events. • Current issues can be linked to enduring issues that have engaged people for ages - for example, genetically modified and created plants and animals, can be linked to the issue of preservation of life, health, and evolution. • Issues go underground and then resurface - even though experts think about their issues constantly, 'the public' only thinks about them when something happens. • Issues are solved sometimes, but new ones emerge - Sometimes, solutions may be implemented to some major recurring issue, but other problems or discussions may arise because of the fix. • Issues seem to be getting more complex - because of this, you will need to think about more than just two clear-cut 'black and white' perspectives and consider all the grey areas.

9. The Problems of Arguments Online • Volume / Variety - How much is being said about an issue and how diverse is the commentary? • Access - Who can join the discussion? • Relevance - Because of the internet, we are all seemingly connected, which gives issues more personal relevance to our everyday lives. • Interactivity - We can communicate with other participants and with the target audience, as well as bring a new audience to the discussion. • Linked Issues - In a lot of discussions, issues are connected to others. • Multimodality - How will you make your argument? Textually? Visually? Aurally? • Author / Credibility - You always need to consider who is the speaker of a given argument. • Polarization - In many cases, extreme views are abound regarding a variety of issues. How will you deal with them?