Management 11e John Schermerhorn

Management11e John Schermerhorn Chapter 15 Motivation Theoryand Practice

Planning Ahead — Chapter 15 Study Questions • How do individual needs influence motivation? • What are the process theories of motivation? • What role does reinforcement play in motivation? • What is the link between job design and motivation? Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • Needs • Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an individual • Explain workplace behavior and attitudes • Create tensions that influence attitudes and behavior • Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need satisfaction Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • Hierarchy of needs theory • Developed by Abraham Maslow • Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace behavior and attitudes • Lower-order needs: • Physiological, safety, and social needs • Desires for physical and social well being • Higher-order needs: • Esteem and self-actualization needs • Desire for psychological growth and development Management 11e Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • Hierarchy of needs theory • Deficit principle • A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior • Progression principle • A need at one level does not become activated until the next lower-level need is satisfied Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • ERG theory • Developed by Clayton Alderfer • Three need levels Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • ERG theory • Any/all needs can influence behavior at one time • Frustration-regression principle • An already satisfied lower-level need becomes reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • Two-factor theory • Developed by Frederick Herzberg • Hygiene factors: • Elements of the job context • Sources of job dissatisfaction • Satisfier factors: • Elements of the job content • Sources of job satisfaction and motivation Management 11e Chapter 15

Figure 15.2 Herzberg’s two-factor theory Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • Acquired needs theory • Developed by David McClelland • People acquire needs through their life experiences • Needs that are acquired: Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • Acquired needs theory • Need for Achievement (nAch) • Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks • People high in (nAch) prefer work that: • Involves individual responsibility for results • Involves achievable but challenging goals • Provides feedback on performance Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • Acquired needs theory • Need for Power (nPower) • Desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for other people • Personal power versus social power • People high in (nPower) prefer work that: • Involves control over other persons • Has an impact on people and events • Brings public recognition and attention Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • Acquired needs theory • Need for Affiliation (nAff) • Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other persons • People high in (nAff) prefer work that: • Involves interpersonal relationships • Provides for companionship • Brings social approval Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Process theories of motivation … • How people make choices to work hard or not • Choices are based on: • Individual preferences • Available rewards • Possible work outcomes • Types of process theories: • Equity theory • Expectancy theory • Goal-setting theory Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Equity theory • Developed by J. Stacy Adams • When people believe that they have been treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation • Perceived inequity • Perceived equity Management 11e Chapter 15

Figure 15.3 Equity theory and the role of social comparison Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Equity theory • People respond to perceived negative inequity by changing … • Work inputs • Rewards received • Comparison points • Situation Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Managerial implications of equity theory— • Underpaid people experience anger • Overpaid people experience guilt • Perceptions of rewards determine motivational outcomes • Negative consequences of equity comparisons should be minimized, if not eliminated • Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source of equity controversies in the workplace • Gender equity • Comparable worth Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Expectancy theory • Developed by Victor Vroom • Key expectancy theory variables: • Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance • Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards • Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes Management 11e Chapter 15

Figure 15.4 Elements in the expectancy theory of motivation Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Expectancy theory • Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion: Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Managerial implications of expectancy theory— • To maximize expectancy, managers should: • Select workers with ability • Train workers to use ability • Support work efforts • Clarify performance goals Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Managerial implications of expectancy theory— • To maximize instrumentality, managers should: • Clarify psychological contracts • Communicate performance-outcome possibilities • Identify rewards that are contingent on performance Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Managerial implications of expectancy theory— • To maximize valence in a positive direction, managers should: • Identify individual needs • Adjust rewards to match individual needs Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Goal-setting theory • Developed by Edwin Locke • Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly motivating • Motivational effects of task goals: • Provide direction to people in their work • Clarify performance expectations • Establish a frame of reference for feedback • Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Goal-setting theory • Participation in goal setting • unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting • management by objectives (MBO) promotes participation • when participation is not possible, workers will respond positively if supervisory trust and support exist Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Self-Efficacy Theory • a person’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task • Capability directly affects motivation • higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy • self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Self-Efficacy Theory • Enactive mastery • person gains confidence through positive experience • Vicarious modeling • learning by observing others • Verbal persuasion • encouragement from others that one can perform a task • Emotional arousal • high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation? • Fundamentals of reinforcement theory • Focuses on the impact of external environmental consequences on behavior • Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on future behavior Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation? • Operant conditioning: • Developed by B.F. Skinner • Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation? • Operant conditioning strategies: • Positive reinforcement • Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence • Negative reinforcement • Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation? • Operant conditioning strategies: • Punishment • Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence • Extinction • Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an pleasant consequence Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation? • Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on • Law of contingent reinforcement — • Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited • Law of immediate reinforcement — • More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more reinforcement value it has Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation? Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation? • Schedules of reinforcement: • Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each time a desired behavior occurs • Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only periodically • Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous reinforcement • Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is more permanent • Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive reinforcement of successive approximations to it Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation? • Guidelines for using punishment: • Tell the person what is being done wrong • Tell the person what is being done right • Match the punishment to the behavior • Administer punishment in private • Follow laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement Management 11e Chapter 15

Figure 15.5 Applying reinforcement strategies: case of total quality management Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation? • Job • A collection of tasks performed in support of organizational objectives • Job design • The process of creating or defining jobs by assigning specific work tasks to individuals and groups • Jobs should be designed so that both performance and satisfaction result Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation? • Job simplification • Standardizing work procedures and employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks • Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth • Automation • Total mechanization of a job • Most extreme form of job simplification Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation? Management 11e Chapter 15

Figure 15.6 Basic job design alternatives Please insert figure 15.6 here Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation? • Job rotation and job enlargement: • Expands job scope • Job rotation • Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different task assignments • Job enlargement • Increases task variety by combining two or more tasks previously assigned to separate workers • Horizontal loading Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation? • Job enrichment • Building more opportunities for satisfaction into a job by expanding its content • Increases job depth by adding work planning duties normally performed by a supervisor Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation? • Job characteristics model • Satisfaction and performance are influencec by three critical psychological states: • Experienced meaningfulness of work • Experienced responsibilities for work outcomes • Knowledge of actual results of work activities Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation? • The three critical psychological states are influenced by five core job characteristics: • Skill variety • Task identity • Task significance • Autonomy • Feedback Management 11e Chapter 15

Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation? • How to improve core job characteristics: • Form natural units of work • Combine tasks • Establish client relationships • Open feedback channels • Practice vertical loading Management 11e Chapter 15

Figure 15.7 Designing jobs using the core characteristics model Please insert figure 15.7 here Source: Reprinted by permission from J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, Work Redesign (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980), p. 90. Management 11e Chapter 15

Management 11e John Schermerhorn