1) Urbanization = growth of cities (as workers migrate to cities to find work)

1. 1) Urbanization = growth of cities (as workers migrate to cities to find work) Problems: miserable living conditions for the working class (middle & upper classes live outside cities in larger suburban estates):

2. Problems of rapid urbanization: • No city planning to manage growth = chaotic & unorganized development (growth is too much, too fast… outpaces needed public services) • No sanitation codes = dirty & polluted (sewage & trash disposed of in unpaved streets & rivers; coal soot covers buildings) • No building codes = poor housing (poorly built, overcrowded slums… fire hazard!) • Poor sanitation + overcrowding = epidemics & disease, shortened lifespans (no public health services) • Inadequate (or absent) police & fire services • No public education • No parks, libraries

3. 2) Urban problems are SLOWLY fixed over the next two centuries, as [MUNICIPAL] governments collect taxes from individual income, property, and business profits to eventually respond with investments in public services: • → paved streets • → sewers • → parks • → modern municipal services (fire, police, trash collection, building code inspection & enforcement)

4. 3) Industrialization fosters growing CLASS DISTINCTIONS: I. UPPER CLASS: • Traditional upper class: landowners and aristocrats (inherited wealth, based on land ownership and family legacy) • Newindustrial upper class: factory owners & entrepreneurs, merchants, bankers (begin to rival, then join upper classes economically; initially resented by the traditional upper class!)

5. 3) Industrialization fosters growing CLASS DISTINCTIONS: II. A new & emerging MIDDLE CLASS: • Upper Middle: government employees, doctors, lawyers, managers, accountants, business professionals, wealthy farmers • Lower Middle: skilled workers, tradesmen, mechanics, overseers (lower-level managers)

6. 3) Industrialization fosters growing CLASS DISTINCTIONS: III. WORKING CLASS (aka: lower class): Less skilled, less educated laborers Which do YOU come from?

7. 4) CLASS TENSIONS RISE • Working class increasingly reacts to immense differences in wealth, income, living & working conditions: • 1. RIOTS, DESTRUCTION OF PROPERTY (Luddites*) • 2. PROTESTS & DEMONSTRATIONS • 3. ORGANIZATION → FORMATION OF LABOR UNIONS • 4. EMIGRATE! • *The original “rage • against the machine”: • Property to be protected • with force... while • workers' lives were • considered expendable.

8. 5) GOVERNMENT REACTIONS to working class unrest: • Arrest, sometimes shoot demonstrators (or allow companies to hire their own security force to do so) • Protect property, and the ECONOMY, from “the mob” • Reasoning: uphold “law & order” and protect property, using violence against workers (if necessary… and sometimes when not necessary!) • LAISSEZ-FAIRE policies (for owners to profit, not for workers to organize) will continue well into the 20th century; unions are eventually tolerated, and later given legal recognition (not until 1935 in the U.S.) • Slow, creeping government reform occurs only when forced to after conditions become too terrible to ignore, and workers gain sympathy from a wider public audience • (early examples: Factory Act (1833), Mines Act (1842))

9. 6) NEGATIVES OF EARLY INDUSTRIALIZATION… widespread suffering: • - dangerous & unhealthy working conditions • (factories & coal mines were dirty, poorly lit, and lacking in safety… workers were often injured by machines & industrial accidents, with no compensation) • - polluted air & water (at work and in the environment) • - child labor (no nationwide public education until 1920's) • - low wages (esp. for children & women) • - long hours (14 hours a day, 6 days a week) • - dull, repetitive work (machine pace, round the clock) • - DE-HUMANIZING CONDITIONS (owners regard workers • as disposable, easily replaced) • - wealth & income disparity: large income gap between • working class and middle & upper classes, leads to… • - class tensions (working class v. middle & upper classes), • sometimes resulting in violence & social instability

10. 7) POSITIVES OF INDUSTRIALIZATION • + Job creation & growth in employment opportunities • + Gradually rising wages (esp. compared to farming) • + More affordable consumer goods • + Technological progress, more comforts & conveniences • + Growing national wealth (but very unevenly distributed!) • + A rising standard of living (over the long-term) for most • people (today’s middle class routinely enjoys what • previous generations would consider to be luxuries) • + More education (due to need for skilled workers) • + Growth of the middle class (wealth no longer dependent • on land ownership) • + Eventually (long term), improved working & living • conditions (unions, labor laws) • + Longer life spans (more food, better medicine & health)