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1. Ch. 3 Policy and History 03_00-CS.JPG

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4. Downstream

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6. What is Environmental Policy and Why is it needed? What

7. Environmental policy aims to protect environmental quality AND to protect equity in use of resources • Protects commons • Prevents “free riders” with law, regulations, or taxing • Addresses external costs borne by those other than buyers/sellers

8. 03_02.JPG Policy plays central role in how we address environmental problems. How are policies established?

9. Policy Input • Science: information and analysis • Ethics & Economics: criteria to assess extent/nature of problem • Government: intersects with citizens, organizations, private sector to find solutions

10. Example: Tijuana River • Science: • sewage produces pathogens/hypoxia • Ethics/Economics: • Beach closures, • $ losses from recreation/tourism • Those downstream suffer • Government: • Tijuana River Valley Estuary and Beach Cleanup Act • Funds for sewage treatment

11. Factors Hindering Environmental Policy • Perception: overly restrictive • Costs to developers: permits, monitoring, oversight • Gradual development of most environmental problems or “frog in pot” ++

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13. Policy Approaches • Command and Control: • Most common • “Command and Control” or rules and punishment

14. Alternatives to C and C • Subsidies • Government gift of cash/resources to encourage activity seen as beneficial • Controversial – for example the General Mining Law of 1872 allows up to $1 billion of minerals to be extracted from public land without royalties to taxpayers • Green Scissors Report

15. Green Taxes – help to internalize external costs • Tax incentives • encourage resource conservation

16. Gasoline Tax in selected Countries • Red = Total price • Blue = tax

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19. Permit Trading or “Cap and Trade” • Government creates market in permits • Issues permits to companies who may buy, sell, or trade them • Company that reduces its pollution may sell its credit to another • NGOs may buy and “retire” credits • “hot spots” of pollution - criticism

20. Environmental Defense Fund – proponents of cap and trade • Program resulted from amendments to Clean Air Act in 1990 • 35% reductions in SO2 by 2005

21. Waves of legislation • 1. Early – through late 1800’s – promoted settlement and use of resources • Ex. Homestead Act 1862 – if one lives, cultivates, builds on federal land for 5 years – 160 acres becomes their property

22. Waves of legislation • 1. Early – through late 1800’s – promoted settlement and use of resources 03_07a.jpg

23. 2nd wave of legislation - Late 1800’s through early 1900’s • Shift toward mitigation of impacts caused by first • Creation of national parks, forest preserves, wildlife refuges 03_07b.jpg

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25. 3rd wave - Mid to late 20th century • responded to pollution resulting from prosperity • Prompting Events: • Silent Spring • Cuyahoga River Fires • Santa Barbara Oil Spill 1969 • Result: today air, water cleaner 03_08.JPG

26. 03_09.JPG Cuyahoga River caught fire several times in 50’s and 60’s

28. Social Context 60s and 70s -evidence of widespread environmental problems -could visualize policies and solutions -supportive leaders Changed in 80s – perception that env. laws hurt business 03_10a.jpg

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30. 1970 – Dawn of Modern Era of Environmental Policy • Jan 1, 1970 Nixon signed NEPA – National Environmental Policy Act • Created Council on Environmental Quality – evolved into the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) • Required Environmental Impact Statements (EIS)

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32. Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) • Filed for any major action that involved federal funding ex. Dam, highway, building • Include: • Nature of proposal and need • Environmental impacts of proposal – short-term and long-term • Alternatives to reduce adverse effects

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34. International Policy • United Nations – UN Environmental Programme • European Union: can sign treaties on behalf of 27 member nations – same authority as national law • NGOs – nongovernmental organizations • Nature Conservancy, Greenpeace, Conservational International, Sierra Club • WTO – World Trade Organization : represents multinational corporations • World Bank – loans to poor countries for major projects including dams

36. Montreal Protocol summary– 1987 • 160 nations agreed to reduce ozone depleting chemicals • Most successful environmental treaty thus far • Montreal Protocol video • What factors contributed to its success?