Using Knowledge in the Real World

1. Using Knowledge in the Real World

3. Memory for Discourse (Sachs, 1967) Passage Sentence He sent a letter about it to Galileo, the great Italian scientist Comparison 1 – changed surface form A. He sent a letter about it to Galileo, the great Italian scientist. B. He sent Galileo, the great Italian scientist, a letter about it. Comparison 2 – changed meaning A. He sent a letter about it to Galileo, the great Italian scientist. B. Galileo, the great Italian scientist, sent him a letter about it.

4. Memory for Discourse (Sachs, 1967) Retention Interval Number of Syllables 0 80 160 100% 50% 50% 100% 80% 80% Comparison 1 – changed surface form (i.e., syntax) A. He sent a letter about it to Galileo, the great Italian scientist. B. He sent Galileo, the great Italian scientist, a letter about it. Comparison 2 – changed meaning A. He sent a letter about it to Galileo, the great Italian scientist. B. Galileo, the great Italian scientist, sent him a letter about it.

5. Propositions Proposition – simple idea The hungry lion ate Max, who starved it. (at least) 3 propositions: 1. The lion was hungry. 2. The lion ate Max. 3. Max starved the lion.

6. Proposition theories make 3 basic claims: 1. Semantic roles are determined 2. Propositions are constructed 3. Propositions are stored in memory evidence for propositions Kintsh (1974) Anderson (1974) – varied # of relations associated w/ a person and location Ratcliff & McKoon (1978) - priming Need Geese-horizon Vs. Horizon-wind

7. The girl broke the window on the porch The tree in the front yard shaded the man who was smoking his pipe The hill was steep The sweet jelly was on the kitchen table The tree was tall The old car climbed the hill The ants in the kitchen ate the jelly The girl who lives next door broke the window on the porch The car pulled the trailer The ants ate the sweet jelly that was on the table The girl lives next door The trees shaded the man who was smoking his pipe The sweet jelly was on the table

8. The girl who lives next door broke the large window The man was smoking his pipe The old car climbed the steep hill The large window was on the porch The tall tree was in the front yard The car pulling the trailer climbed the steep hill The jelly was on the table The tall tree in the front yard shaded the man The car pulling the trailer climbed the hill The ants ate the jelly The window was large

9. The car climbed the hill The girl who lives next door broke the window The old man who was smoking his pipe climbed the steep hill The tree was in the front yard The ants ate the sweet jelly that was in the kitchen The window was on the porch The barking dog jumped on the old car in the front yard The tree in the front yard shaded the man The ants were in the kitchen The old car pulled the trailer The tree shaded the man who was smoking his pipe The tall tree shaded the man who was smoking his pipe The ants ate the jelly on the kitchen table The old car, pulling the trailer, climbed the hill The girl who lives next store broke the large window on the porch The tall tree shaded the man The ants in the kitchen ate the jelly The car was old The girl broke the large window The ants ate the sweet jelly that was on the kitchen table The ants were on the table in the kitchen The old car pulling the trailer climbed the steep hill

10. The car climbed the hill The girl who lives next door broke the window The old man who was smoking his pipe climbed the steep hill The tree was in the front yard The ants ate the sweet jelly that was in the kitchen The window was on the porch The barking dog jumped on the old car in the front yard The tree in the front yard shaded the man The ants were in the kitchen The old car pulled the trailer The tree shaded the man who was smoking his pipe The tall tree shaded the man who was smoking his pipe The ants ate the jelly on the kitchen table The old car, pulling the trailer, climbed the hill The girl who lives next store broke the large window on the porch The tall tree shaded the man The ants in the kitchen ate the jelly The car was old The girl broke the large window The ants ate the sweet jelly that was on the kitchen table The ants were on the table in the kitchen The old car pulling the trailer climbed the steep hill

11. Bransford and Franks (1971) The ants ate the sweet jelly that was on the kitchen table Idea Grouping The ants were in the kitchen The ants ate the jelly The jelly was sweet The jelly was on the table Proposition – simple idea Semantic Integration– integrate related material

12. Factors influencing lexical retrieval word frequency longer pauses before LF words word length AoA imageability recency gestures (see Rauscher et al., 1986) more pauses when not allowed used more w/ concrete concepts

13. Fox et al. (1997) – use of “the” the (pronounced “thee”) signals problem 81% of the time followed by pause also often preceded by pause the (pronounced “thuh”) is common 7% of the time followed by pause

14. Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) Phenomenon – on the verge of lexical retrieval w/out success. Can be induced by: giving a definition showing a face rate = 1 per week, but increases w/ age common TOTs occur w/ names blockers = phonologically similar words

15. Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) Phenomenon – on the verge of lexical retrieval w/out success. When in TOT: can guess 1st letter about 50% can guess # of syllables 50-80% about 50% are resolved w/in 1 minute

16. Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) Phenomenon – on the verge of lexical retrieval w/out success. Explanations: speaker cannot access retrievable memory memory contains incomplete information

17. Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) Phenomenon assumed that semantic and syntactic info. retrieved prior to phonological info Vigliocco et al. (1997) - conducted in Italian - definitions used to induce TOT - could subjects guess gender when in TOT distinguished b/w positive and negative TOT

18. Results from Vigliocco et al. 1997

19. Washing Clothes The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange items into separate groups. Of course one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the next step; otherwise, you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. At first, the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then, one never can tell. After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials into different groups again. They can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated. However, that is part of life. - taken from Bransford, 1979, pp. 134-135

20. Context Effects a) instructions b) discourse c) behavior d) locations and situations

21. Memory in Natural Settings - Schemata and Scripts schema or script – a stored framework or body of knowledge about some topic. Examples Washing Clothes Birthday Party First Date Eating at a Restaurant

22. Memory in Natural Settings - Schemata and Scripts schema or script – a stored framework or body of knowledge about some topic. Birthday Party Scripts contain segments called frames or slots - details about events  

23. Memory in Natural Settings - Schemata and Scripts schema or script – a stored framework or body of knowledge about some topic. Birthday Party Scripts contain segments called frames or slots - details about events  

24. Memory in Natural Settings - Schemata and Scripts schema or script – a stored framework or body of knowledge about some topic. Birthday Party default values - the most common examples of events that occupy the frames a) gathering of friends and relatives b) cake with candles and ice cream c) playing pin the tail on the donkey d) presents wrapped in B-day paper

25. Short Story Schema Bartlett (1932) Participants read War of the Ghosts Over time – retelling of story became more inaccurate reproductive memory – accurate reconstructive memory –act of filling in missing elements for recent study see Bergman and Roediger (1999)

26. Thematic Effects - Sulin and Dooling (1974) Gerald Martin’s seizure of power. Gerald Martin strove to undermine the existing government to satisfy his political ambitions. Many of the people of his country supported his efforts... _______ was obsessed by the desire to conquer the world. Gerald Martin Adolph Hitler

27. Thematic Effects - Sulin and Dooling (1974) Carol Harris was a problem child from birth. She was wild stubborn and violent... 1 week later She was deaf dumb and blind. Carol Harris 5% Helen Keller 50%

28. False Memory “The ability to remember the seemingly infinite episodes of our lives is a miracle of the human mind. But memory is not always accurate, and we sometimes think that an event that never happened actually did.” Gallo, 2006

29. Memory False Memory and Memory Reconstruction Loftus and Palmer (1974) Participants witness a film of a car accident. Participants divided into 3 groups: How fast were the cars going when they _____ each other? 1. hit 2. smashed into 3. control group - not asked any questions

30. Leading Questions and Memory Distortion Loftus & Palmer (1974) participants viewed car accident How fast were the cars going when they _____ each other? Group 1 - hit (34 mph) Group 2 - smashed into (41 mph) Group 3 - control group - no questions Memory reconstruction or response bias? est. speed hit smashed

31. Leading Questions and Memory Distortion Loftus & Palmer (1974) participants viewed car accident proportion reporting broken glass control hit smashed

32. Misinformation Paradigm 1) participants witness an event 2) later they are exposed to additional information 3) memory for the original event tested

33. Loftus & Pickrell (1995) Interview 1 – 3 stories constructed from accounts of relatives and 1 false memory story The lost-in-the-mall scenario included the following elements: 1. lost for an extended period 2. crying 3. aid 4. comfort by an elderly woman 5. reunion with the family

34. Loftus & Pickrell (1995) Interview 1 – 3 stories constructed from accounts of relatives and 1 false memory story The lost-in-the-mall scenario included the following elements: 1. lost for an extended period 2. crying 3. aid 4. comfort by an elderly woman 5. reunion with the family

35. Hyman et al. (1995) Interview 1 – Asked about true events (reported by parents) Plus 3 false events (provided by experimenter): 1. Wedding reception 2. Store evacuation b/c of sprinkler 3. Releasing car brake

36. Hyman et al. (1995) during the first interview, one participant, when asked about the fictitious wedding event, stated, "I have no clue. I have never heard that one before." In the second interview, the participant said, "It was an outdoor wedding, and I think we were running around and knocked something over like the punch bowl or something and made a big mess and of course got yelled at for it. "

37. Spanos et al. (1999) “impossible memories” “You have well-coordinated eye movements and visual exploration skills probably b/c a colored mobile was hung over your crib.”

38. How are false memories formed? Event activates schema associated with that event - provides structure Events supplied by experimenter are assumed to be true - associated w/ structure of schema and committed to episodic memory

39. Deese (1959) – went largely unnoticed

40. bed rest awake tired dream wake snooze blanket doze slumber snore nap sleep

41. sour candy sugar bitter good taste tooth nice honey soda chocolate heart sweet

42. Deese (1959) – went largely unnoticed Underwood (1965) – associative memory errors - continuous recognition task - participants falsely recognized related lures more than unrelated lures e.g., study smooth– later tested on rough vs. do notstudy smooth– later tested on rough

43. Deese, Roediger and McDermott (DRM) paradigm

44. bed rest awake tired dream wake snooze blanket doze slumber snore nap sleep

45. R & M (1995) Results - Free Recall (Experiment 1) p of recalling critical item = .40 Results – Recognition Memory (Experiment 2) Item Type Proportion Recognized Remember Know Studied .79 .57 .22 Critical Lure .81 .58 .23

47. 1,234 797 2012

48. bed rest awake tired dream wake snooze blanket doze slumber snore nap Roediger & McDermott, 1995 what causes false memories in the DRM paradigm?

49. Spreading Activation (Collins & • Loftus, 1975) • Mental representations exist for • concepts. When processing a concept • (e.g., by reading, hearing, or thinking • about it), the mental representation • for that concept becomes activated, • and that activation spreads to other • related concepts. what causes false memories in the DRM paradigm?

50. hypothesized semantic network for sleep peace dream blanket sleep bed snore awake yawn snooze