Review of the evolution of humans: How science and reason need to work together

1. Review of the evolution of humans: How science and reason need to work together BCB 703: Scientific Methodology http://anthro.palomar.edu/hominid/australo_1.htm

2. Where did we evolve from? • Hominids have been around for 8 Million years • At least a dozen forms have evolved • More discoveries are still to be made • Coexisting hominids have occurred and interacted with each other • The last to co-exist with human lived up to 12 000 years • Debate still reigns as to the existence of ape-like men http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_floresiensis Please make sure you have viewed the film Ape to Man before going further with this Lecture. Viewable at Google Video Homo floresiensis is remarkable for its small body, small brain, and survival until relatively recent times Search words “Ape to Man”

3. About Human Evolution • Is a Process of Change and Development • And had lead to the emergence of the species Homo sapiens • It describes the development of Human morphology, culture and technology • It is multi-disciplinary (physical anthropology, archaeology, genetics and molecular biology)

4. Paleoanthropology • Began with the discovery of “Neanderthal Man” • Humans and Apes are related • Idea became legitimized with Charles Darwin publication “On the Origin of Species” http://www.santanderciudadviva.com/fotos/cultura/neanderthal.jpg “light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history” (Darwin 1859)

5. Ardipithecus ramidus &A. kadabba • Proto-human since its teeth are similar to Australopithecus. • Shares several traits with the African great apes (genus Pan and genus Gorilla) • Lived from 5.4 to 4.2 million for A. ramidus and 5.2 to 5.8 million years ago for A. kadabba • They are Chimpanzee-sized • Debate on its bipedalism - toe structure suggests that it walked upright but it is believed to have lived in shady forests • Theory of bipedalism is based on the need to move out from forests onto the savanna http://www.nowhow.nl/english/portfolio/ardipithecus%20ramidus.htm

6. A. bahrelghazali found in 1993 by Michel Brunet in Chad 2,500 kilometers West from the East African Great Rift Valley. A few teeth and a partial jaw are aged to between 3.0 to 3.5 million years old. Material found in 1995 had similar dentition to A. afarensis. This is the only australopithecine fossil found in Central Africa. Australopithecus anamensis • Fossils are 4 million years – discovered in 1965 • Complete lower jaw found resembles that of a Common Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), • Teeth are definitely closer to those of Human – they had thick enamel but the canines were relatively large • The tibia implies that anamensis was larger than ramidus and afarensis • Mass was between 46 to 55 kilograms -larger than other apes at the time • Was bipedal in posture and locomotion but could still climb trees. http://www.geocities.com/palaeoanthropology/Aanamensis.html

7. Australophitecus afarensis • Lived 3 to 3.9 million years ago • Found in the Afar Depression, Ethiopia by Donald Johanson, Yves Coppens and Tim White in 1974. • 40% of the skeleton is complete • Nicknamed Lucy, after the Beatles song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds". • Lucy was only 1.2 m (3 feet 8 inches) tall and weighed 29 kilograms (65 lbs) • She resembled a chimpanzee except for her pelvis which established that she could walk upright • This fossil puts doubt on who was the last ancestor of humans and chimpanzees http://www.nowhow.nl/english/portfolio/australopitecus%20afarensis.htm

8. Australophitecus afarensis - bipedalism • Savanna Theory – dwindling forests and climate change – forced a living on the plains • They could still possible have walked on all fours – since the bones in the hands were curved rather than the joints bending. • Pelvis differs and the legs stuck out to the side. • Walk would be a rocking gait (how chimps walk) rather than front-back movement of humans • Aquatic theory evolved from wading in coastal/swamp forests to collect coconuts, turtles, bird eggs, shellfish etc http://www.nowhow.nl/english/portfolio/australopitecus%20afarensis.htm Lucy’s chimpanzee-sized brain, bidealism and human-like teeth challenged the big brain hypothesis

9. Australopithecusafricanus It is generally considered that these early hominids would have been peaceful plant eaters but there is now evidence that the taste for meat was an early feature of their evolution! • Lived between 3.3 and 2.4 million • Slender build - 1.2 m tall and 36 kg mass • Significantly more human than A. afarensis: teeth, eye orbits and possession of a formen magnum but the brain was 400-500 cc • Fossil from Taung (Kimberley) described by Raymond Dart in 1924 • Dart’s claims of intermediate status between ape and man at the time were largely rejected by most of the scientific community • More fossil finds including Mrs. Ples (originally Plesianthropus transvaalensis) at Sterkfontein (re-classed as a young male) http://www.ica-net.it/pascal/UOMO_JPG/A.robustus.htm The two most important fossils were Taung Child and Mrs Ples from Sterkfontein. The fossilized brain cast established a volume of 485cc

10. Australopithecusafricanus • Long arms and curved fingers still ape-like features and would assist in climbing trees • Bipedalism better developed than in A. afarnensis • No stone tools (except for the 2.6 million year old Australopithecus garhi) http://www.ica-net.it/pascal/UOMO_JPG/australopithecus_africanus01.htm Australopithecus established an African origin for human evolution. Australopithecus was a prey item – one skull had clear tooth marks indicating a leopard was responsible and their bones have been found in nest material of eagles.

11. A. garhi is now considered the first tool maker Australopithecus garhi

12. Paranthropus aethiopicus • Fossils between 2.5~2.7 million years – discovered in Ethiopia 1968 • Possible descendent of A. afarensis • Is a “robust” form with large bony ridge on top of the skull for attachment of jaw muscles – an adaptation for chewing vegetation, nuts and tubers (as in Gorillas) • No agreement on whether P. boisei and P. robustus were its descendents • Lived in mixed savanna and woodland • The bizarre, primitive skull suggests that Paranthropus was an on its own evolutionary branch of the hominid family tree http://anthro.palomar.edu/hominid/images/A_ethiopicus_skull.gif Black Skull found in 1985, West Turkana, Kenya

13. Paranthropus robustus • Fossils 1.2~2.0 million years – discovered in South Africa by Robert Broom in 1938 • Cranial modifications suggest “heavy chewing” adaptation (nuts and tubers found in the woodland/savanna) • This robust line of australopithecine lead to them being put into the genus Paranthropus • Based on dentition P. robustus rarely lived beyond 17 years • This specimen clearly showed that evolution of Homo sapiens was not on a straight path and co-existing hominids existed • Height 1~1.2m, mass 40-54 kg, brain size 410-530 cc http://www.ica-net.it/pascal/UOMO_JPG/A.robustus.htm

14. Paranthropus boisei • Fossils 1.4~2.6 million years – discovered in Olduvai, Tanzania by Mary Leakey in 1959 • Classified originally as Zinjanthropus boisei • Originally found with stone tools and proposed direct human ancestry – it is now known that it co-existed with Homo habilis who was a tool maker, and is not a ancestor to Homo. • Even more specialized for “heavy chewing” adaptation (nuts and tubers found in the woodland/savanna*) • Height 1.1~1.3m, mass 45-68 kg, brain size 500-550 cc http://amnh.com/exhibitions/atapuerca/gallery/africa.php?image=3&page=branches The average adult males were almost twice the weight and height as the females. This is the largest sexual dimorphism recorded for any hominid *High Carbon-4 signatures in the bones has suggested that they specialized on C-4 savanna grasses

15. Kenyanthropus platyops • Fossils 3.2~3.5 million years – discovered at Lake Turkana, Kenya 1999 by Meave Leakey • Broad, flat face but the toe anatomy suggest that it walked fully upright • A very controversial fossil with Tim White suggesting it is not a valid taxon • Due to the skull fragmentation there is considerable distortion and views vary from it being Australopithecus afarensis (same age and close to Ethiopia) while others indicate the cranium is similar to Homo rudolfensisIs • Meave Leakey interprets this fossil as adaptive radiation of bipedalism since it is contemporary with other bipedals such as Australopithecus afarensis http://www.archaeologyinfo.com/kenyanthropus.htm

16. Homo habilis • Fossils are 1.8~2.5 million years old – discovered Oduvai, Tanzania between 1962 and 1964 by Mary and Louis Leakey • Oldest member of genus Homo – very short, with disproportionately long arms • A possible descendent of Australopithecus they weresimilar in size (> 1.3 m) and even slightly lighter in mass (34 kg). • Their skull was more human than ape-like but half the capacity of modern man (590-650 cc) • One of the earliest tool-makers • Were they a stable food item for predatory animals. There is little evidence to suggest that they were a master hunter since large numbers of them appear to fall prey to predators. Were they scavengers? http://www.kenyafreak.de/News/Tansania/habilis.htm

17. Homo rudolfensis(Skull 1470) • Fossils are 1.9 million years old – discovered Lake Turkana in 1972 by Bernanrd Ngeneo (on team dig with Richard Leakey) • Co-existed with Homo habilis and indeed originally was thought to belong to this species – it has a distinct and larger cranial capacity (752cc) • Some researchers still consider it to be more ape-like than human-like, but was a tool-maker • Uncertain as to whether it is ancestral to Homo erectus http://hjem.get2net.dk/giver/man/man.htm Homo rudolfensis made and used tools

18. Do Homo habilis & rudolfensis justify inclusion in the genus Homo? • They appeared to have lacked slim hips for walking long distances, a sophisticated sweating system (inferred), narrow birth canal and legs longer than arms – all considered to mark Homo-sapien evolution • Consequently it is argued that these two species are more similar to Australopithecus than Homo • Many of the features used to put them into the genus Homo are inferred characters that cannot be known for certain. • Tool-making was considered but Australopithecus gahri had them. http://hjem.get2net.dk/giver/man/man.htm

19. Homo ergaster • Fossils found in East and South Africa. Fossil found in Lake Turkana, Kenya in 1984 was called Turkana Boy” • They appeared 1.9 to 1.4 million years. • Tool use belongs to the Acheulean industry • Distinguished from H. erectus by its thinner skull bones • Reduced sexual dimorphism, a smaller face but a larger (700 and 850cc) brain and was up to 1.9m in height • Made hand axes and cleavers http://hjem.get2net.dk/giver/man/man.htm Homo georgicus (below) found in Dmanisi, Georgia in 1999 and 2001 seems to be intermediate between Homo habilis and H. erectus and is 1.8 million years old. Discovered by David Lordkipanidzeis and represents the oldest hominoid in Europe and were found in association of implements and animal bones.

20. Homo erectus • Fossil discovered by Eugène Dubois in Indonesia in 1891. Despite Darwin’s prediction that human’s ancestors were probably African most people at the time believed in Asian origins • Homo erectus originally migrated out during the Pleistocene glacial period in Africa roughly 2.0 million years ago • Relatively tall at 1.79 m, had a brain capacity of 950 to 1100cc and fairly modern appearance. • Was once considered the first maker of tools: Oldowan style (chipped from one side) and Acheulean style (chipped on both sides to form the cutting edge) • Hunter/gatherer community • Homo erectus near the Solo River in Java existed up to 50,000 years ago The oldest representation of early human migration http://hjem.get2net.dk/giver/man/man.htm Found in India, China and Indonesia but some researchers suggest that they were an Asian H. neanderthalensis

21. Homo antecessor • One of the earliest known hominins in Europe with the oldest being 780 000 years found in Spain (oldest fossil is H. Georgicus) • Average brain was 1000 - 1150cc. Fossils have numerous cuts of the bones that indicated cannibalism • Are either a descendent or a form of early Homo heidelbergensis. Gran Dolina and Sima de los Huesos are famous fossil sites • Earliest hominins found in England found between 478,000 and 524,000 years old together with signs of cannibalism. • Up to 1.83 m and 91 kg H. antecessors was relatively large • Facial features were a protruding post-cranium, absence of forehead and lack of a chin http://www.elmundo.es/elmundolibro/2004/09/08/no_ficcion/1094661510.html Homo antecessor were probably the first Europeans

22. Homo heidelbergensis • In the fossil record from 600,000 to 250,000 years ago throughout Europe. • Descended from African H. ergaster but is similar to Homo rhodesiensis found in Zambia • Tall at 1.8 plus height and with a mass of up to 91 kg – bigger and more muscular than modern humans. Brains were from 1100 – 1400cc. • Serious hunters and killed and ate animals the size of mammoths • May be the first species to bury their dead, and might have had a language, but no art exists • Made considerable quantities of stone tools – far more than needed – first species to have possessions? Homo cepranensis is a homind some 800,000 to 900,000 years. Found in Italy it may be a cross between H. erectus and H. heidelbergensis http://www.evolutionnyc.com/

23. Homo neanderthalensis • Discovered in Forbes' Quarry, Gibraltar in 1848, eight years prior to the "original" discovery in a limestone quarry of the Neander Valley by Johann Karl Fuhlrott. • Inhabited Europe and parts of western Asia from about 230,000 to 29,000 years ago, during the Middle Paleolithic period. • Considered to be cold adapted – short, robust bodies, large noses and the largest Homo brains (1200 - 1700cc). Height is 1.53-1.65m and mass is 76 kg http://hjem.get2net.dk/giver/man/man.htm Mousterian tool case consisted of sophisticated stone-flakes, task-specific hand axes, and spears. Either invented the Chatelperronian themselves or "borrowed" elements from the incoming modern humans Ritual burials include grave goods (bison bones). Pollen found at the sites are from known medicinal plants

24. A Neanderthal artifact, but is it a bird? A Neanderthal flute? Homo neanderthalensis & H. sapiens • A Neanderthal hyoid bone (responsible for voice) and a shorter and stouter larynx suggest that Neanderthals had a high pitched and sharp voice but did they have a language? • They constructed complex shelters, controlled fire, and skinned animals. A hollowed-out bear femur with four strategically placed holes plays the Do, Re, Mi scale – the first musical instrument? • Mitochondrial DNA suggest that Neanderthals were not a sub-species of H. sapiens. Nevertheless other researcher argue that that they interbred with H. sapiens, and are the same species as us. http://www.neanderthalerart.com/

25. All the skulls had cut marks indicating they had been de-fleshed in some kind of mortuary practice. The polishing on the skulls, however, suggests this was not simple cannibalism but more probably some kind of ritualistic behaviour. Homo sapiens idaltu • Lived almost 160,000 years ago the fossil first found in Ethiopia in 1997 by Tim White • Three well preserved skulls with the adult having a brain of 1450cc • Has more archaic features than Cro Magnon and represents the oldest H. sapiens – they are slightly larger, longer and have more pronounced brow ridges • Name idaltu is an Amharic word for "elder". • Direct ancestors of modern Homo sapiens but evolved in East Africa http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/africa-theory.html

26. Cro Magnon • Oldest modern humans living in Europe • Lived 35 000 to 10 000 years ago • Anatomically modern • Physiologically more robust with slightly larger brains than modern humans • Fossils first found in 1868 in France http://hjem.get2net.dk/giver/man/man.htm • Surviving Cro-Magnon artifacts include huts, cave paintings, carvings and antler-tipped spears. • The remains of tools suggest that they knew how to make woven clothing. • They had huts, constructed of rocks, clay, bones, branches, and animal hide/fur. • Used manganese and iron oxides to paint pictures • Created the first calendar around 15,000 years

27. Homo floresiensis • Remarkable for its small body < 1m and about 25 kg mass, small brained (380 cc), but survived until 12 000 years ago • Contemporary with modern humans (Homo sapiens) on the Indonesian island of Flores • Fossils found in 2003 with suitably small-sized stone artifacts providing evidence that hunted animals such as dwarf elephants (Stegodon) and the giant lizards • Used fire for cooking. • Can be considered a species of diminutive human. • Nicknamed the "hobbit" • Is it the small furry man called Ebu Gogo described living up to the 19th century? Who is its closest relative? Some researchers have argued that they represents an extreme form of Island Dwarfism of Homo erectus, but others argue its derived from Australopithecus that got to Asia. Source of the legends of the little People?

28. Modern man • The human brain is capable of thought, reason, speech, language and introspection • As a result modern humans have developed art, culture, religion, philosophy and technology to a higher level than any other species • While appearing diverse in form and structure from light-skinned to dark-skinned and from >1.4m height (Zaire Pygmies) to >1.83m the Tutsi of Burundi and Rwanda – genetically humans are incredibly similar (Chimps have more diversity)

29. Eoanthropus dawsoni (Piltdown) • This fake fossil cranium and lower jaw was presented to the world in 1912 by Charles Dawson and Arthur Smith Woodward and accepted as the missing link • Having a large brain but ape-like jaw it was dated at 500 000 years based on sediments and other genuine fossils introduced to the site. • Exposed in 1953 as a forgery – Radio carbon dating showed the cranium was less than 1,000 years old. Its unusual thickness suggests Paget's disease, a hereditary thickening of bone • The lower jaw was some 500 years old orang-utan and the teeth had been filed down. • The bones had been chemically hardened, stained and burnt to appear older. http://www.3d-art.co.uk/3dpages/3ded/king-4.html

30. Next Chapter 1 Review of Human Evolution Chapter 2History and Civilization Chapter 3 Philosophy of Science Chapter 4 To be announced Chapter 5 To be announced Chapter 6 To be announced Chapter 7 To be announced Chapter 8 To be announced Chapter 9 To be announced I hope that you found chapter 1 informative, and that you enjoy chapter 2.