Models of Human Behavior

1. Models of Human Behavior S R S O R Organism (Individual) acts as an intervening variable

2. Why individual responses might vary? • Perceptions • Attributions • Attitudes • Personality • Experience

3. The Process of Perceiving Picking up of Stimuli Stimulus Selectivity Personal Selectivity Interpreting Stimuli

4. Perceptual Biases • Schema • Selective Perception • Stereotyping/Halo Effect • Primacy vs. Recency Effect • Negativity Effect • Contrast Effect • Nonverbal Cues • Attributional biases

5. Three Components of Attitudes Cognitions (thoughts) Affect (feelings) Behavior (intention to act)

6. General Comments on Human Behavior • Human behavior is a complex process. • We tend to be overly optimistic about the • rationality of people. • Some individual differences are changeable but • others are not. • The expectations of others (particularly those in • power) strongly influence individual behavior. • We generally have a difficult time understanding • the behavior of others. • 6. We are constantly sending messages to others.

7. Misconceptions about Motivation 1. Some people just aren’t motivated. 2. Motivation is something you do TO others. 3. A happy worker is a productive worker.

8. Types of Motivation Theories Content Theories Process Theories

9. Content Theories of Motivation - Help us understand what motivation IS (unsatisfied needs) - Need = an internal state of deficiency - Needs Tension Behavior to reduce the tension by satisfying the need (Homeostasis) - At certain times some needs will be more important than others.

10. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Premises: Self- Actualization 5 level hierarchy Esteem Need Prepotency Need Progression Belongingness Security Physiological

11. Defense Mechanisms Aggression Projection Rationalization Escape Exit

12. McGregor’s Theory X Theory Y Theory X Assumptions 1. The average person dislikes work and will avoid it if at all possible. 2. Most people must be coerced to put forth more than a minimum level of effort on behalf of the organization. 3. The average person prefers to be directed, avoids responsibility, and prefers security above all else.

13. Theory Y Assumptions 1. … work is as natural as play or rest. 2. People will exercise self control and self- direction toward objectives to which they are committed. 3. People, under the proper conditions, will accept and even seek responsibility. 4. The capacity for creativity and ingenuity is widely, not narrowly, distributed. 5. The intellectual potential of people is only partially being utilized in today’s workplace.

14. Argyris’ Immaturity Maturity Theory Immature Characteristics Mature Characteristics Passivity Activity Dependence Independence Few Ways of Behaving Diverse Behaviors Shallow Interests Deep Interests Short-Term Perspective Long-Term Perspective Subordinate Position Superordinate Position Lack of Self-Awareness Self-Awareness & Self-Control

15. Alderfer’s ERG Theory Premises: A 3 level hierarchy Need Progression Need Regression Growth Relatedness Existence

16. Causes of Employee Satisfaction Traditional View Low Pay High pay Dissatisfaction Satisfaction Herzberg’s 2 Factor Theory - Hygiene +Hygiene - Motivators + Motivators Dissatisfaction Satisfaction

17. Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory Hygiene Factors Motivator Factors Pay Achievement Working Conditions Recognition Security Work Itself Fringe Benefits Responsibility Company Policies Growth Potential Interpersonal Relations Supervision

18. McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory Need for Affiliation: Interpersonal Relationships Opportunities to Communicate Need for Power: Control over Others Attention Recognition Need for Achievement: Individual Responsibility “Challenging” Goals Immediate Feedback

19. A Comparison of Content Theories Maslow’s McGregor’s Argyris’ Alderfer’s Herzberg’s McClelland’s Hierarchy TheoryX/Y Theory ERG Two Factor Acquired Needs Y X Self- Actualization Esteem Social Security Physiological Mature Immature Growth Relational Existence Achievement Power Affiliation Motivators Hygiene

20. Expectancy Theory Valence: the perceived value of a particular outcome to an individual. Instrumentality: the perceived probability that performance will lead to outcomes Expectancy: the perceived probability that effort will lead to task performance

21. Expectancy Theory:continued Perceptions Reality E I V Effort Perf. Rewards Effort Perf. Rewards

22. Equity Theory Perceptions 1. Perceptions of outcomes received 2. Perceptions of inputs required 3. Perceptions of the outcomes and inputs of a “Referent” other

23. Equity Inequity OIOO II IO OIOO II IO < = OIOO II IO >

24. Equity Inequity Motivation: Motivation: maintain reduce inequity: current situation 1. Change inputs 2. Change outcomes 3. Alter perceptions of self 4. Alter perceptions of other 5. Change referent other 6. Leave the situation

25. Reinforcement Theory Law of Effect: Behavior that tends to lead to rewards tends to be repeated, while behavior that tends to lead to no reward or to punishment tends to be avoided.

26. Types of Reinforcers Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Extinction Punishment

27. Schedules of Reinforcement Frequency Variable Fixed Ratio Interval Basis

28. An Integrated Model of Motivation Individual Factors Environmental Factors Alternative Outcomes courses of associated action with actions 1 1 2 2 etc. etc Needs Tension Effort Ability Select an alternative Actual Actual Performance Rewards Effort Role Perceptions Equity Perceptions Satisfaction