Literature and History (2): The Use of History in Literary Criticism

1. Literature and History (2):The Use of History in Literary Criticism Literary History, New Criticism and New Historicism Literary Criticism: History (3)– From New Criticism to New Historicism

2. Q & A (1) • Your questions? • wk 1: Identity and History—what and why? • wk 2: Historical methods • Not just used by historians and fiction writers, but literary critics, popular culture and everyone of us. • They are ways of knowing/representing our past– as permanent present, as a magical realm, as logical/progressive development, catastrophic, or as fractured textual reconstruction. • wk 3: New Historicism, History, Time and Traumatic Memories

3. Q & A (1) Quiz (1) • What are the historical methods used by historiography and/or historical novel/film and how can they be critiqued? •  credibility (‘facts & evidence,’ authoritative & neutral tone and the past tense);  subjective selection •  embodiment (witness account, the use of narrative and other techniques)  subjective (biased) and eliminating gaps •  totalization (generalizations of a period, a people or a society)  excluding and erasing individual differences and exceptions.

4. Outline • Literary History – another example of traditional historicism • New Criticism e.g. Sonnet 29 • New Historicism & Foucault

5. Literary History • p. 104 – periodization 歷史斷代 • segmenting the flow of history into some big chunks. (classification as a way of knowing the past, but . . . ) • homogenizing and totalization (one period is seen to have a set of characteristics) (e.g. p. 108-109; 111; Neo-Classical poetry, Romantic Poetry, Victorian Novel and Poetry 唐詩、宋詞、元曲、明小說) Aren’t there exceptions to these generalizations? e.g. Jane Austin—Romantic, or Victorian, 19th century ‘poetess’ (ignored) vs. the Big Six • Forming a Canon 典律; e.g. The Great Tradition (1948)by F. R. Leavis

6. Q & A (2)Quiz (2) • How is the reading of “Rip Van Winkle” related to what we discussed? • A new critical reading (close analysis of form and content to produce a unified meaning) • It uses historical methods (as frames). • It is involved in contemporary history in a contradictory way. • The story is apparently a fantasy out of time and space (and thus only apparently similar to many time/space travel stories), but it says a lot about the time of American Independence.

7. From New Criticism to New Historicism -- From Work to Text

8. Two different views of a literary work • A work: Autonomous, unified in meaning; the meaning remains stable and can be transmitted through time and space;  New Criticism or Formalism • A text: textualized, interacting with the other texts around it in the historical context(s) it is written and read.  New Historicism & Post-structuralism Image source: http://valerie6.myweb.uga.edu/intertextuality.html

9. Review: New Criticism: Major Views • A poem is autonomous, with an ontological status. Intentional Fallacy, Affective Fallacy • Poetry offers a different kind of truth (poetic truth) than science. • Heresy of Paraphrase (詩不可以被翻譯)

10. Review: New Criticism: Major Views • Organic unity – with the parts interrelated and forming a wholeness; -- “Form is content; content is form.”

11. Review:New Criticism: Methodology -- Poetry Whole Themes pattern, tension, ambiguities, paradox, contradictions • Parts • Figurative language, Denotations, connotations and etymological roots • Allusions • Prosody • Relationships Among the various elements

12. Sonnet 29 (textbook p. 112) • What is the central meaning? How is the “I” presented? • How is it supported by the poetic techniques in the poem? • Pattern: Variation or repetition? Is there tension formed and solved? Are there paradoxes, ambiguities, etc.?

13. Sonnet 29 When in disgrace with fortune and men's eyes, I all alone beweep my outcast state, And trouble deaf Heaven with my bootless cries, And look upon myself, and curse my fate, Wishing me like to one more rich in hope, Featur'd like him, like him with friends possess'd, Desiring this man's art, and that man's scope, With what Imost enjoy contented least: Yet in these thoughts myself almost despising, Haply I think on thee,--and then my state Like to the lark at break of day arising From sullen earth sings hymns at heaven's gate; For thy sweet love remember'd such wealth bringsThat then I scorn to change my state with kings'.

14. Sonnet 29 – a new critical reading • central meaning – The speaker transcends his state of depression by thinking of his lover. • “I”–the speaker (or any man); ‘thee’ his lover • Tension (or transition): “Yet” 3rd quartrain. • Ambiguities –“thy sweet love remember'd “ in the mind (of an artist) but not owned; -- “state”

15. Sonnet 29 –analyzed—syntax//meaning • the 1st two quatrains: fragmentary syntax, with “I” deeply buried in it. • The 1st quatrain: great distance between the sky and the speaker • The 2nd quatrain: circular or awk syntax, repetition of ‘like’ • Wishing me like to one more rich in hope, Featur'd like him, like him with friends possess'd, Desiring this man's art, and that man's scope, With what I most enjoy contented least:

16. Sonnet 29 –analyzed—syntax//meaning • 3rd quatrain and couplet: • the main clause, more continuous (with fewer pauses), to suggest the fast change of the speaker’s state. • 2. smooth syntax, rhythmic (iambic) and mellifluous sounds  suggesting the rise of his state. • Yet in these thoughts myself almost despising, Haply I think on thee,--and then my stateLike to the lark at break of day arising From sullen earthsingshymns at heaven's gate;

17. Sonnet 29 –analyzed -- rhymes When in disgrace with fortune and men's eyes, I all alone beweep my outcast state, And trouble deaf Heaven with my bootless cries, And look upon myself, and curse my fate, Wishing me like to one more rich in hope, Featur'd like him, like him with friends possess'd, Desiring this man's art, and that man's scope, With what I most enjoy contented least: Yet in these thoughts myself almost despising, Haply I think on thee,--and then my stateLike to the lark at break of day arisingFrom sullen earth sings hymns at heaven's gate; For thy sweet love remember'd such wealth bringsThat then I scorn to change my state with kings'. musical

18. Sonnet 29 – ambiguities? • Ambiguities –“thy sweet love remember'd “ not present? Nor reciprocated? --(textbook p. 114-15) “state”– interpreted as mental state but not social state. The difference here is syntactic. In Booth’s version both ‘Lark’ and ‘my state’ sing hymns at Heaven’s gate. In the quarto version only ‘my state’ sings, having arisen ‘from sullen earth’. ‘My state’ is subject, ‘from sullen earth’ is an adjunct, ‘sings’ is the main verb, and ‘at Heavens gate’ in another adjunct (preposition-headed).

19. Sonnet 29 – a New Historicist Reading • comparing two versions: John Barrrel -- “I have claimed that much of the pathos of the poem derives from the narrator’s simultaneous desire and inability to escape from the limiting conditions of earth and perhaps of discourse; and if the narrator’s state can do all that the lark can do, that source of meaning and pathos is abolished.” -- “The narrator can find no words to assert the transcendent power of true love which cannot be interpreted as making a request for a couple of quid一磅金幣 ”(qtd Taylor 71)  -- “thy” – the lover or the patron who offers financial support?

20. New Criticism Historicized: The theories after New Criticism: Five Main Points • Politics is pervasive (implying power relations), 任何事情都是政治的， • Language is constructive (but not reflective) of reality, 語言為建構， • Truth is provisional (or contingent, no universal, non-changing truth), 真理是臨時建構， • Meaning is contingent (context is important determinant of meanings), 意義是因時／地制定的， • Universal human nature is a myth人性的普遍性是虛構的. • Do you agree?

21. New Criticism  New Historicism • History is brought back to literary studies and literature de-centered. Both are in a network of text. • The assumptions of history – influenced by Michel Foucault. Textbook 112— • ‘New Historicists’-- see history not in terms of discrete episodes forming an homogeneous whole, but as fractured, subjective, and above all textual. • Foucault –”sees literature as just another discourse manipulated through and by a culture’s power struggles. Foucault’s historicist perspective is one based on a suspicion of truth rather than a presumption of truth. Thus any historical representation is not unified, truthful and coherent, but contingent, unstable and partial.”

22. New Historicism: principles • (textbook) 115 • Every expressive act (speech or text) is embedded in a network ofmaterial practices(production of texts or other types of productions); participate in the economy they describe. • Language as context: Every act of unmasking, critiquing, and opposition uses the tools it condemns and risks falling prey to the practice it exposes; (e.g. The Tempest, Midnight’s Children, etc.) • Literature de-centered: That literary and non-literary texts circulate inseparably; • Truth is provisional; human nature, a myth. No discourse,. . . gives access to unchanging truths, nor expresses inalterable human nature (more later)

23. New Historicism: methods • Investigates three areas of concern: 1. the life of the author; 2. the social rules or power relations found within a text; 3. The work’s historical situation (of production and circulation) in the text.  Blurring the boundaries between text and context. • Avoiding sweeping generalization of a text or a historical period, a new historicist pays close attention to the conflicts and the apparently insignificant details in history as well as the text.

24. New Historicism: examples • the analyses of “Rip Van Winkle” Sonnet 29. • p. 123 – an anecdote (of a doctor’s decision that the maid, Marie, is a man) is used to interpret Twelfth Night. • wantonness of language  language embodied • The prefaces to Wordsworth’s Lyrical Ballads, as opposed to contemporary literary reviews and capitalist system, are used to explain his views on poetry.

25. Michel Foucault (1926 - 1984) Discourse, Power and Subjectivity Image source

26. Discourse Definition “What is an Author?” Power and Knowledge (Truth)  ‘effective history’ Power Discipline & Punish Foucault (1): Outline

27. Discourse is "a group of statements which provide a language for talking about ...a particular topic at a particular historical moment.“  How is Power involved? Discursive formation over time --three major procedures: Definition & Prohibition  defining statements & Rules about the “sayable” and “thinkable” Division and rejection;  subject positions; exclusion of other statements Opposition between false and true  Authority/Power of knowledge (Truth) Discursive practices (material practices) within institutions. (e.g. the discourse of 尊師重道） Discourse (論述): Definition

28. Stop and Think: Discourse, “Truth” & Power • What discourse, or its “the regime of truth,” makes the following statements valid? • Neurosis is a mental illness usually caused by sexual repression. • Masturbation causes sexual impotence. • Yellow is beautiful. • 一個孩子恰恰好，兩個不嫌多 • How is ‘author’ related to discourses?

29. What is an Author? The author is not a creator of his own work. He is a ‘label’ put on a group of work by and related to him. • The author function: providing to ‘his’ discourse a. Value, b. Coherence, c. Stylistic unity, d. a historical figure

30. Literary Discourse: implications • No fixed boundaries between literature and other social practices; • The author is not the creator of his work. He serves as a label to put on a group of works related to him. (e.g. Wordsworth discourse) • Defining some subject positions (of the author, the reader, etc.) (to be discussed more later)

31. Power and Knowledge/Truth • power – both repressive, controlling and productive -- not just top-down; it circulates, working in multiple direction like “capillary 毛細管 movement.” -- producing “Truth”– with a discursive formation sustaining a regime of truth.

32. Power and Knowledge/Truth (2) • Since truth is provisionally produced by power in its system, Foucault argues for production of ‘effective history’ (117) • e.g. the operation of power in a hospital –exertion of power through spatial arrangement, the doctor’s examination, the posters, pamphlets, the different examination room, registration system, pharmacy, insurance co., etc.

33. Discipline and Punish Main purpose -- not so much the “birth of the prison”as “disciplinary technology” Or the carceral (監獄的) forms of discipline which exercise over individual a perpetual series of observation and modes of control of conduct.

34. Discipline and Punish (2) B. Penopticon A circular building with the central control tower  control internalized.

35. References • Miller, Peter. Domination & Power. Routledge: 12/01/1987.