Perception and Personality in Organizations

1. 6 C H A P T E R Perception andPersonality inOrganizations S I X

2. Perception • Process of selecting, organizing, interpretation, and storage of sensory data to give it meaning • We don’t operate in the objective reality because all of our realities merely our own personal realities • Individuals see what is important to them: • if you are hungry you are more likely to notice food, etc.

3. Feeling Hearing Seeing Smelling Tasting Selective Attention Organization and Interpretation Emotions and Behaviors Perceptual Process Model Environmental Stimuli

4. Gestalts - born in universal organization tools • Perceptual Defense - subconciously screening out threatening information • Perceptual Grouping - placing people and objects into groups • Perceptual closure - filling in missing data • Mental Models - broad theories that help us operate in our world • Figure and ground - figure is the dominant feature, ground is surrounding stimuli

5. Selective Attention • Characteristics of the object • size, intensity, motion, repetition, novelty • Perceptual context • Characteristics of the perceiver • attitudes • perceptual defense • expectations -- condition us to expect events

6. Splatter Vision Perception Fighter pilots, secret service agents, and bird watchers use splatter vision -- scanning everything and focusing on nothing. This reduces the chance of screening out potentially important information.

7. Social Identity Theory ACME Widget Employee Employees at other firms An Individual’s Social Identity Live in the United States People living in other countries Graduates from other schools U. of Vermont Graduate

8. Social Identity Theory Features • Comparative process • define ourselves by differences with others • Homogenization process • similar traits within a group; different traits across groups • Contrasting process • develop less favorable images of people in groups other than our own

9. Assign person to category based on observable info Assign category’s traits to the person The Stereotyping Process Develop categories and assign traits Professors are absent-minded Our instructor is a professor Our instructor absent-minded

10. How Accurate are Stereotypes? • Some accuracy, some distortion, some error • rarely accurate for everyone in the group • we screen out inconsistent information • Stereotypes are less accurate when: • little interaction with people in that group • in conflict with members of that group • stereotypes enhance our own social identity

11. Stereotyping and Power • Status effects upon stereotyping • Those with power are more likely to stereotype those without power • Powerful are • less dependent • have more things to pay attention to • are more free to stereotype • Lower status individuals • are more in dependent • sensitive to situations

12. Attribution Theory • When people observe another’s behavior they use certain criteria to determine whether it fits that person’s general personality or is affected by other factors • Subconscious process • Distinctiveness - same person in other situations • Consistency - same person in similar situations over time • Consensus - the figure person versus others

13. Attribution Process • External Attribution • Perception that outcomes are due to situation or fate rather than the person • Internal Attribution • Perception that outcomes are due to motivation/ability rather than situation or fate • When do people make each type of attribution? • About our performance? • About others’ performance?

14. Frequently Consistent with past Seldom Frequently Distinctive from other situations Seldom Seldom Consensus (Other people are similar) Frequently Rules of Attribution Internal Attribution External Attribution

15. Attribution Errors • Fundamental Attribution Error • attributing own actions to external factors and other’s actions to internal factors • Self-Serving Bias • attributing our successes to internal factors and our failures to external factors

16. Self-fulfilling prophecy • Observer expectations of someone causes that person to act in a way that is consistent with the observer’s expectation • Process • expectations formed • behavior toward the subject • effects on the employee • opportunities • self-efficacy - belief that he or she has the ability, motivation, and situational contingencies to complete a task successfully • employee behavior and performance

17. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle Supervisor forms expectations Employee’s behavior matches expectations Expectations affect supervisor’s behavior Supervisor’s behavior affects employee

18. Other Perceptual Errors • Primacy • first impressions • Recency • most recent information dominates perceptions • Halo • one trait forms a general impression • Projection • believing other people are similar to you

19. Improving Perceptual Accuracy Diversity Management Improving Perceptual Accuracy Know Yourself Empathize With Others Compare Perceptions With Others Postpone Impression Formation

20. Diversity Management Programs • Communicates the value of diversity • Increases awareness of perceptual biases • Communicates info about cultural differences • Doesn’t try to correct deep-rooted prejudice • “Next level” moves to deeper understanding and sensitivity

21. Open Area Open Area Blind Area Blind Area Hidden Area Unknown Area Hidden Area Unknown Area Know Yourself (Johari Window) Known to Self Unknown to Self Known to Others Unknown to Others

22. Defining Personality • set of traits and behaviors that characterize an individual • relatively stable • can change over time or because of major life events • learning is important in the development of personality

23. Extroversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness Emotional Stability Openness to Experience Big Five Personality Dimensions Caring, dependable Poised, secure Sensitive, flexible Courteous, empathic Outgoing, talkative

24. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator • Cognitive style - the way an individual percieves and processes information • Two ways of seeking information • sensing • intuition • Two ways of evaluating information • thinking • feeling

25. Four types of problem solvers • Sensation Thinkers - bureaucrats concerned with formulating and following rules, persistent and decisive • Intuitive Thinkers - innovative developer of ideas, but not great administrators • Sensation Feelers - methodological, detailed oriented, like facts but not a great deal of change • Intuitive Feelers - charismatic leader that visualizes possibilities

26. Other personality traits • Locus of control - degree to which people believe that they, rather than external forces, determine their own lives • Self-monitoring personality - sensitivity to situational cues, and ability to adapt their behavior to that situation • Dogmatism - degree of flexibility or rigidity of a persons views • Machiavellianism - extent to which a person manipulates others for personal gain • Risk-propensity - willingness to take risks • self-esteem - judgement of ones own worth