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Nano Select - 2023 - Mekuye - Nanomaterials An overview of synthesis classification characterization and application

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Nano Select - 2023 - Mekuye - Nanomaterials An overview of synthesis classification characterization and application

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  1. Received: 17 March 2023 Revised: 31 May 2023 Accepted: 31 May 2023 DOI: 10.1002/nano.202300038 REVIEW Nanomaterials: An overview of synthesis, classification, characterization, and applications Bawoke Mekuye Birhanu Abera Department of Physics, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Mekdela Amba University, Tulu Awuliya, Ethiopia Abstract Significant research employing nanomaterials has been conducted in the field of nanotechnology over the past few years. Due to the significant advancements made in a number of industries, including electronics, energy, medical, cosmet- ics, food engineering, telecommunications, and agriculture, nanotechnology is advancing quickly. As a result, nanomaterials are the foundation of nanotech- nology. Due to their small size, nanomaterials have special optical, magnetic, electrical, and physical, reactivity, strength, surface area, sensitivity, and sta- bility features. Surprisingly, the phase change occurs when bulk materials are converted into nanomaterials, which means that materials that were previously non-magneticbecomemagneticatthenanoscale.Becauseofitsuniquefeatures, nanoscale matter is a separate form of matter from the solid, liquid, gaseous, andplasmastates.Nanomaterials’characteristicsaremostlydeterminedbytheir shapes and sizes. In this paper a critical overview of nanomaterials, their vari- eties, characteristics, synthesis techniques, and applications in various fields is offered. Correspondence Bawoke Mekuye, Department of Physics, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Mekdela Amba University, Tulu Awuliya, Ethiopia. Email: bawokemek143@gmail.com KEYWORDS density of state, nano, nano science, nanomaterial, nanoparticle, nanotechnology, synthesis, toxicity 1 INTRODUCTION Kelvin. The prefix “nano” has found in the last decade an ever-increasingapplicationtodifferentfieldsofknowledge and is now a popular label for much of modern science; therefore, it is becoming increasingly common in the sci- entific literature.[1–4]Size, which refers to the length scale from 1 to 100 nm, is the fundamental defining attribute of all nanoparticles, in which materials have at least a nanoscale dimension. Thus, according to refs.[5–7] nano- materials are substances that are between 1 and 100 nm in size,atleastinoneofthethreedimensions[8,9]andmustbe 푐푚3 The meaning of the word ‘nano’ is nanos, which indi- cates a person of very low height or a very small object that is a dwarf. Consider that in an international system of units, the prefix nano is used to indicate part of a unit. Forinstance,ananometerisabillionthofameteroramil- lionth of a millimeter; a nano liter is a billionth of a liter or a millionth of a milliliter; and a nano is a billionth of a greater than 60푚2 [6,10]in terms of spherical surface area Bawoke Mekuye and Birhanu Abera contributed equally in writing this review paper. by volume. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2023 The Authors. Nano Select published by Wiley-VCH GmbH. 486 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/nano Nano Select 2023;4:486–501.

  2. 26884011, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/nano.202300038 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [16/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License MEKUYE and ABERA 487 Based on size, origin, structural configuration, pore diameters, and potential toxicity, nanomaterials can be divided into five major categories.[3,10,11]Due to its unique properties, nanoparticle matter exhibits unique chemi- cal, physical, and biological properties at the nanoscale compared to their respective particles at higher scales. Nano particulate matter is a distinct state of matter from the solid state, liquid state, gaseous state, and plasma state. In this dimension, their nanomaterials have dis- tinctive optical, magnetic, and electrical properties. There are other ways to make nanomaterials, but the two basic approaches are bottom-up and top-down meth- ods. Examples of top-down techniques include lithogra- phy, mechanical milling or ball milling, laser ablation, sputtering, electron explosion arc discharge, and ther- mal decomposition. Examples of bottom-up techniques include chemical vapor deposition (CVD), sol-gel, spin- ning, pyrolysis, and biological synthesis.[11,12]The field of study known as nanoscience is concerned with the char- acteristics of matter at the nanoscale, with a focus on the special, size-dependent characteristics of solid-state materials.[2,11,12] The field of study known as nanotechnology includes the synthesis, engineering, and application of nanomate- rials. Due to the innovative and intriguing applications of nanomaterials for the next industrial generation, nan- otechnology has attracted a lot of interest over time.[3,11,12] Agriculture, biomedicine, electronics, energy, pollution abatement, food engineering, transportation, telecommu- nication, cosmetics, coatings, materials, and mechanical engineering are just a few of the industries that use nanomaterials.[2,3,6,8,9,11,12] Nanomaterials are now becoming important for the overall development of mankind. For example, to reduce the risk of global climate change and global warming in the first place, the only solution is to use green tech- nology that works only using nanomaterials. Because it has been confirmed that the technology that uses nano- materials is more effective than the technology that uses bulk materials.[13–15]Secondly, nanomaterials are used to develop tools to diagnose and control the epidemic dis- eases that are happening all over the world. For example, in 2019, Covid-19, a disease that was killing many peo- ple in the world, was able to be diagnosed and controlled usingnanomaterials.[16–18]Also,itwaspossibletodiagnose and treat the monkey pox disease that is currently hap- pening in the world by using nanomaterials.[19,20]In the future,itisexpectedthatnanomaterials,nanoscienceand nano technology will play a leading role in the develop- ment of the world.[11,12,21,22]Therefore, it is necessary for everyone to have adequate knowledge and understanding about nanomaterials. In the last 20 years, many studies have been done on nanoparticles and materials. However, many recent studies indicate that they focus on the classification, preparation method, properties, and uses of each nanomaterial.[1,2,5,7,9]There is no more research that articulates all nanomaterials classification, preparation and properties that work for all careers. To solve this problem, we have studied clearly all classifications of nanomaterials and the reason for their classification, preparation, and classification of their preparation, which areusefulforallclasses,properties,andallpracticedfields. 2 NANOMATERIALS CLASSIFICATION OF Figure 1 illustrates how nanomaterials can be divided into five categories depending on their size, place of origin, structural configuration, pore size, and potential toxicity. 2.1 based on origin Classification of nanomaterials Naturalandartificialnanoparticlesarethetwogroupsinto which nanomaterials are divided based on origin.[23,24] 2.1.1 Natural nanomaterials Naturalnanomaterialscanbefoundinavarietyofformsin nature, including viruses, protein molecules, minerals like clay, natural colloids like milk and blood (liquid colloids), fog (aerosol type), gelatin (gel type), mineralized natural materials like shells, corals, and bones, insect wings and opals,spidersilk,lotusleaves,geckofeet,volcanicash,and ocean spray.[23,24] 2.1.2 Artificial nanomaterials Carbon nanotubes and semiconductor nanoparticles like quantum dots (QDs) are examples of artificial nanomate- rials that are made consciously using precise mechanical andmanufacturingprocedures.Nanomaterialsarecatego- rized as metal-based materials, dendrimers, or composites depending on their structural makeup.[23,24] 2.2 based on the structural configuration/composition Classification of nanomaterials According to their structural makeup, nanoparticles can be broadly divided into four groups: organic/dendrimers, inorganic, carbon-based, and composite.[23–29]

  3. 26884011, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/nano.202300038 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [16/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 488 MEKUYE and ABERA FIGURE 1 General classification of nanomaterials. The examples that follow consist of organic nanomaterials: A, dendrimers; B, liposomes; C, micelles; D, ferritin.[28,31] FIGURE 2 2.2.1 Organic nanomaterials liposomes, dendrimers, micelles, and ferritin. Non-toxic biodegradable nanoparticles known as nanocapsule micelles and liposomes have hollow interiors and are sensitive to heat, electromagnetic radiation, and light.[29] The surface of a dendrimers is coated with numerous On the nanoscale, organic compounds are converted into organic nanomaterials. As shown in Figure 2,[28,31] some examples of organic nanoparticles or polymers are

  4. 26884011, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/nano.202300038 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [16/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License MEKUYE and ABERA 489 chain ends that can perform specific chemical reactions. Dendrimers are used in molecular recognition, nano sensing, light harvesting, systems. Furthermore, because (3D) dendrimers feature internal holes that can hold additional molecules, they may be useful for drug administration.[25,26,28–30] the charge of electrons in semiconductors, but are not used for mass storage of information in dispensable information technology. 3. Diluted magnetic semiconductor nanomaterials. The semiconducting materials are made magnetic by adding a few magnetic impurities to the host matrix, in which some of the diamagnetic host cations are randomly replaced by magnetic (TM) cations. These materials not only retain semiconducting properties, but also possess magnetic properties that are a mixture of ordinary and magnetic semiconductors.[28,32] and optoelectrochemical three-dimensional 2.2.2 Inorganic nano materials Inorganic nanoparticles are nanoparticles that lack car- bon atoms and are known as inorganic nanoparticles. Inorganic nanoparticles are typically classified as those composed of metal-based or metal oxide-based nanomate- rials. Ceramic nanomaterials Ceramic nanomaterials are inorganic solids made up of carbides, carbonates, oxides, carbides, carbonates, and phosphates synthesized via heat and successive cooling. The ceramic nanoparticles can be formulated in drug delivery systems, especially in targeting tumors, glau- coma, and some bacterial infections and nanomateri- als are also getting great attention from researchers due to their use in applications such as catalysis, photo catalysis, photo degradation of dyes, and imaging applications.[27,28] Metal-based nanoparticles Metal-based nanoparticles can be synthesized through destructiveorconstructiveprocesses.Aluminum(Al),cad- mium (Cd), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), gold (Au), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), silver (Ag), and zinc (Zn) are metal materials thatarefrequentlyusedinnanoparticlesynthesis.Because of their quantum effects and huge surface-to-volume ratio, metal nanoparticles have excellent ultraviolet-visible sen- sitivity,aswellaselectrical,catalytic,thermal,andantibac- terial properties. Metal nanomaterials are used in a variety of research fields because they have outstanding optical properties. Lipid-based nanomaterials Lipid-based nanoparticles are generally spherical, with diameters ranging between 10 and 100 nm. It consists of a solid core made of lipids and a matrix containing sol- uble lipophilic molecules. Lipid-based nanoparticles have applications in the biomedical field as a drug carrier and RNA release therapy in cancer therapy.[27,28] Metal oxide nanoparticles Metal oxide nanoparticles, also known as metal oxide nanomaterials, are composed of positive metallic ions and negative oxygen ions. Examples of metal oxide nanoparticles that are frequently synthesized include sil- icon dioxide (SiO2), titanium oxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), and aluminum oxide (Al2O3). These nanoparti- clesexhibitremarkablepropertiescomparedtotheirmetal analogs.[29] 2.2.3 Carbon based nano materials Carbon-based nanomaterials are composed of carbon include five main materials, namely, carbon nanotubes, Graphene, fullerenes, Carbon Nano fiber and Carbon black as shown in Figure 3. Spherical and ellipsoidal nature configured of carbon nanomaterials are referred as fullerenes are called Bucky balls. Fullerenes are the spher- icalstructurewithdiametersupto8.2nmforasingle layer and from 4 to 36 nm for multi-layered fullerenes, which form from 28 to 1500 carbon atoms. Graphene is a hexagonal network of honeycomb lat- tices made up of carbon atoms on a two-dimensional (2D) planar surface, with the sheet around 1 nm, whereas cylin- drical ones are described as nanotubes. Hollow cylinders to form nanotubes with diameters as low as 0.7 nm for a single-layered and 100 nm for a multi-layered carbon nanotube and lengths varying from a few micrometers to several millimeters, the same Graphene Nano fossils are used to produce carbon Nano fiber, and an amorphous Semiconductor nano materials Semiconductor nanomaterials exhibit the same properties as metals and insulators. They are classified into three groups.[32] 1. Concentrated magnetic semiconductor nanoma- terials. It exhibits spontaneous magnetic order and can be a binary compound such as EuTe (anti- ferromagnetic). 2. Non-magnetic semiconductor Nonmagnetic semiconductors that contain no mag- netic ions and are used for information processing and communications have had great success using nanomaterials.

  5. 26884011, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/nano.202300038 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [16/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 490 MEKUYE and ABERA Types of carbon-based nanomaterials.[33] FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4 three-dimensional.[24] Classification of nanomaterials according to dimension: A, zero-dimensional; B, one-dimensional; C, two-dimensional; D, 2.3 according to the number of dimensions Classification of nanomaterials material made up of carbon, generally spherical in shape, with diameters from 20 to 70 nm is known as carbon black.[23,24]Carbon-based nanomaterials are used mainly for structural reinforcement as they are stronger than steel at times. Carbon-based nanomaterials are thermally con- ductive along the length and non-conductive across the tube.[12,25,26,28] Nanomaterials are classified into four types based on their size dimensions: 0D, 1D, 2D, and 3D, as shown in Figure 4. Zero-dimensional nanomaterials 0D nanomaterials: These nanomaterials have all three dimensions (x, y, and z) within the nanoscale range or are not dimensional outside the Nano metric range (>10 nm). gle crystalline or polycrystalline, exhibit various shapes and forms, and be metallic or ceramic.[2,3,5,11,23,24] 2.2.4 Composites nanomaterials QDs, fullerenes, and nanoparticles are examples of 0D nanomaterials. They can be amorphous or crystalline, sin- Composites Nanomaterials are made up of nanoparti- cles combined with other nanoparticles, nanoparticles combined with larger-scale materials, and nanomateri- als combined with bulk-type materials. Nanomaterials are already being used to improve mechanical, thermal, and flame-retardant properties in products ranging from auto parts to packaging materials.[23,25,26] One-dimensional nanomaterials ID nanomaterials: Nanomaterials in this class have two of their three dimensions (x, y) in the nanoscale range,

  6. 26884011, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/nano.202300038 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [16/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License MEKUYE and ABERA 491 FIGURE 5 Density of state for 3D. non-metric range (>10 nm). 1D nanomaterials, such as rials. They can be amorphous or crystalline, single crys- talline or polycrystalline, chemically pure or impure, stan- dalone materials, or embedded within another medium, such as metallic, ceramic, or polymeric. 1D nanoparticles can be metallic, ceramic, or polymeric.[2,3,5,11,23,24] 2.3.1 dimensional nanomaterials Density of state in four types of but one dimension of the nanostructure is outside the nanofibers, nanotubes, nanohorns, nano rods, thin films, and nanowires, are examples of needle-shaped nanomate- QDsaresemiconductorparticles,andtheirsizeislessthan 10 nm in diameter. QDs show unique size-dependent elec- tronic and optical properties.[34,35]The phenomenon of altering the electronic properties as it decreases in size is called the quantum size effect. The overall behavior of bulk crystalline materials changes when the dimensions are reduced to the nanoscale. The density of states is the number of quantum states per unit of energy. In other words, the density of states, Two-dimensional nanomaterials 2D nanomaterials have plate-like shapes with two dimen- sions outside the nanometer range, but 1D (x) is at the nanoscale (between 1 and 100 nm). Coatings and thin- film multilayers, Nano sheets or nano walls, free particles, tubes, fibers, ultrafine-grained over layers, wires, and platelets are examples of 2D nanomaterials. 2D nanoma- terials can be amorphous or crystalline, made of various chemical compositions, deposited on a substrate, or inte- grated into a surrounding matrix material, metallic, or polymeric.[5,11,23,24] denoted by 퐠(퐄), indicates how densely packed quantum a number of states. Thus, the number of states between E states are in a particular system. Integrating the density of the quantum states over a range of energies will produce and 퐝퐄, the effect of confinement on the resulting energy to exist inside an infinitely deep potential well (region of negative energies), from which it cannot escape and is confined by the dimensions of the nanostructure.[36–38] In semiconductors, the free motion of carriers is lim- ited to special dimensions of two, one, and zero special dimensions.[36] states, can be calculated by quantum mechanics as the “particle in the box” problem. An electron is considered Three-dimensional nanomaterials 3Dnanomaterialsorbulkmaterialsarenanomaterialsthat are not confined to the nanoscale in any dimension or dimension range. All dimensions of a 3D material are out- side the nanometer range or greater than 100 nm, but the bulk material is made up of individual blocks that are in the nanometer scale (1–100 nm), so 3D nanomaterials have three arbitrary dimensions above 100 nm. It includes nanoparticle dispersion, bundles of nanowires and nan- otubes, and multi-nano layers in which the 0D, 1D, and 2D structural elements are in close contact and form inter- faces. Thin films with atomic-scale porosity, colloids, and freenanoparticleswithvariousmorphologiesareexamples of 3D nanomaterials.[2,3,11,23,24] The density of state in 3D (bulk) nanomaterials The position of an electron is described by a wave function in 3D boxes, as shown in Figure 5. For calculating the state density of 3D nanomaterials, we calculate the volume of a single state, the volume of a sphere, the volume of a unit cell, and the number of field states in 3D (bulk) materials. The volume of single state 푉singl state=휋3 =휋3 푉 퐿3 (1)

  7. 26884011, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/nano.202300038 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [16/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 492 MEKUYE and ABERA FIGURE 6 Density of state for quantum wells (two-dimensional nanomaterials). The volume of sphere 푉sphere=4 × 2 × 3휋푘3 (1 (2) The number of field state in the cube 푁 = 휋2 with respect to energy 푑 We know, 푔 (퐸) = dN 푉sphere 2×1 2×1 =퐿3퐾3 ) 푉single state 2 3휋2 )∕ =퐿3 (2mE √2mE ( ℏ2 FIGURE 7 (1D). Density of state for quantum wire nanomaterial (3) Where 푘 = dN ℏ2Differentiate the number of field states 퐿3 dN 푚 Sincetheelectronmassm→ 푚∗Equation(5)indicatesthat The volume of sphere )∕) (2mE =퐿3푚 dE= 휋ℏ3(2mE)∕ 푉Circle= 휋푘2 (1 ℏ2Differentiate the number of field states dN dE 휋2 ℏ2 (4) (7) dE dEdivided by cell volume The number of field state in the cube 푁 = 푉circle 2×1 =퐿2퐾2 =푚퐿2퐸 × 2 × ) 푉single state 2 2휋 2휋 휋ℏ3(2mE)∕=푚∗ 푔 (퐸) = dE × 퐿3= 휋ℏ3(2푚(퐸 − 퐸푐))∕ (8) Where 푘 = √2mE dE= dEdivided by cell volume, we get 푔 (퐸) = As expressed in Equation (10) the density of state is independent of energy (5) with respect to energy 푑 (푚퐿2퐸 =푚퐿2 ) ℏ2휋 ℏ2휋 =푚∗ which is 푔(퐸) proportional to In the case of 2D nanomaterials, the conduction electrons willbeconfinedacrossthethicknessbutdelocalizedinthe plane of the sheet, as shown in Figure 6.[36] For calculating the state density of the quantum wells (2D) nanomaterials, first calculate the volume of a single state, thevolume ofasphere,thevolume ofa unitcell,and the number of field states in 2D materials. The volume of single state 푉singl state=휋2 퐸 the density of a state is directly proportional to energy, √ (9) 푔 (퐸) = dN Density of state in quantum wells (2D) nanomaterials 푚퐿2 푚 ℏ2휋퐿2= ℏ2휋 ℏ2휋 (10) Density of state in quantum wires (1D) nanomaterials For 1D nanomaterials, electron confinement occurs in 1D, while delocalization takes place along the long axis of the nanowire, rod, or tube, as shown in Figure 7.[36] =휋2 푉 퐿2 (6)

  8. 26884011, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/nano.202300038 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [16/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License MEKUYE and ABERA 493 For calculating the density of state for a 1D structure (quantum wire), we use a similar approach to the one described above. Then The volume of single state 푉singl state=휋 The volume of sphere 푉line= 푘 푁 = ℏ2Differentiatenumberoffieldstateswith dN dE We know 푔 (퐸) = 휋ℏ퐿 When the electron mass m→ 푚∗ =휋 푉 퐿 (11) (12) FIGURE 8 Density of state for quantum dots (0D). The number of field state in the cube 푉line where푘 = dE= dN dEdivided by cell volume 푔 (퐸) =mL(2mE)−1∕2 × 2 ×1 =퐿 2mE 2=kL √ 2.4 based on pore dimensions Classification of nanomaterials 푉single state 휋 휋 ℏ2 (13) √2mE 푑 Nanomaterials are classified into three groups based on the length of their diameter dimensions,[39]which are micro porous materials, mesoporous materials, and macro porous materials. The diameter of the pores, in the intended sense, determines the size of molecules and provides information about the diffusion and interaction properties. If the guest molecules are smaller than the pore size, there will be less molecule-wall interaction and more molecule-molecule interaction during the diffusion process.[39]They are useful for adsorption and diffusion applications that rely on this parameter. respect to energy, we get =mL(2mE)∕ 퐿 2mE ( ) √ 휋 ℏ휋 ℏ2 (14) =푚(2mE)−1∕2 휋ℏ 푚 1 = = 푚∕2퐸 ℏ휋 √ ℏ휋(2mE)−1∕2 푔 (퐸) = proportional Micro porous materials Micro porous materials are materials that have very nar- row pores with diameters less than 2 nm. They may only house small molecules such as gases or linear molecules. They have slow diffusion kinetics and high interaction properties.Na-Yandnaturallyoccurringclaymaterialsare examples of micro porous materials. They are used in gas purification systems, membrane filters, and gas storage materials. (15) 1 푚∗∕2(퐸 − 퐸푐) to ℏ휋 √ (16) Equation (16) shows that the density of a state is inversely 푔(퐸) is proportional to 퐸∕ For 0D nanomaterials, where all the dimensions are at the nanoscale, an electron is confined in 3D space, as shown in Figure 8.[36] No free motion is possible. All available states exist only at discrete energies. Then we describe the density of states with the delta function. 푔 (퐸) = 2훿(퐸 − 퐸푐) delta Dirac function, which is 푔(퐸) is proportinal to 훿(퐸) energy, which is Mesoporous materials Mesoporous materials have pores with a diameter large enough to hold some large molecules larger than 2 nm but smaller than 50 nm. Mesoporous materials include MCM- 41, MCM-48, SBA-15, and carbon mesoporous materials, which can be used as nanoreactors for polymerization or adsorbing systems for liquids or vapors. Density of state in quantum dot (0D) in nanomaterials Macro porous materials Macro porous materials are materials with pores with enough diameters (greater than 50 nm) to host very large molecules, such as polyaromatic systems or small bio- logical molecules. Carbon micro tubes, porous gels, and porous glasses are examples of macro porous materi- als. These materials are principally used as matrices to (17) According to Equation (17), the density of state is the

  9. 26884011, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/nano.202300038 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [16/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 494 MEKUYE and ABERA store functional molecules, as scaffolds to graft functional groups such as catalytic centers, and as sensing materials. gories: bottom-up and top-down methods, as shown in Figure 9. 2.5 based on potential toxicity Classification of nanomaterials 3.1 Top-down method The top-down method, also known as a destructive method, decomposes bulk materials into smaller mate- rials, which then transform into nanomaterials. Lithog- raphy, mechanical milling or ball milling, laser abla- tion, sputtering, electron explosion, arc discharge, and thermal decomposition are examples of the top-down method.[31,35,41,44] Nanomaterials are classified into three groups based on their potential toxicity. These are fiber-like nanoparticles, persistent granular nanoparticles, and CMAR nanoparti- cles (carcinogenic, mutagenic, asthma genic, reproductive toxin).[40] 2.5.1 Fiber-like nanoparticles 3.1.1 Mechanical milling method Fiber-like nanoparticles are similar to rigid, bio perma- nentcarbonnanotubes,fiber-likemetaloxides,andcarbon nanotubes, but they do not have the asbestos-like proper- ties. Workplace exposure limits for persistent bio carbon 105fibers/m3.[40] 2.5.2 Bio persistent granular nanoparticles Mechanical milling is the most widely used top- down method for producing various nanoparticles. It is used in the manufacture of oxide- and carbide- strengthened aluminum alloys, wear-resistant spray coatings, aluminum/nickel/magnesium/copper-based nano alloys, and a variety of other nano composite materials. nanotubes and rigid nanomaterials range from 104to nanoparticles are 2 × 107particles/m3, which are similar blenanoparticleswithoutaworkexposurelimit,avalueof 0.3 mg m−3has been proposed.[40] 3.1.2 Nanolithography method The proposed exposure limits for bio persistent granular to gold, silver, cobalt, lanthanum, lead, iron, iron oxide, cerium oxide, antimony oxide, and tin oxide. For insolu- It is the process of printing a required shape or structure on a light-sensitive material and selectively removing a portion of the material to create the desired shape and structure. Lithography is a practical method for creating nanoarchitectures with a concentrated electron or light beam. The main advantages of nanolithography are its ability to produce a cluster with the desired shape and size from a single nanoparticle. The disadvantages are the requirement for complex equipment and the associated costs. 2.5.3 Asthma genic, Reproductive toxin) nanoparticles CMAR (Carcinogenic, Mutagenic, Nickel, cadmium-containing QDs, chromium VI, beryl- lium, arsenic, and zinc chromate are examples of CMAR nanoparticles. The proposed work exposure limits from this are 2 × 107− 4 × 107particles/m3. For for soluble nanoparticles with no work exposure limit is 1.5 mg m−3.[40] 3.1.3 Laser ablation method insoluble nanoparticles with no work exposure limit, 0.003 mg m−3has been proposed. The proposed value Laser ablation synthesis generates nanoparticles by strik- ing the target material with a powerful laser beam. Metal atoms vaporize in a laser ablation experiment and are immediately solvated by surfactant molecules to form nanoparticles in the solution. 3 NANOMATERIALS SYNTHESIS METHODS OF 3.1.4 Sputtering method In general, nanomaterials are synthesized using a variety of methods, which are categorized into two main cate- Sputtering is the phenomenon of nanoparticle deposi- tion using ejected particles colliding with ions. Sputtering

  10. 26884011, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/nano.202300038 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [16/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License MEKUYE and ABERA 495 FIGURE 9 Different nanomaterial synthesis methods of nanomaterials. 3.2 Bottom-up method is typically defined as the deposition of a thin layer of nanoparticles followed by annealing. The bottom-up method, also known as the constructive method, involves the building of material from atoms to clusters to nanoparticles. CVD, sol-gel, spinning, pyroly- sis, and biological synthesis are all examples of bottom-up methods.[31,43–45] 3.1.5 Thermal decomposition method The breakdown was caused by heat. This process is endothermic. The chemical bonds are broken and divided intosmalleronesbyheat.Themetalisbrokendownatpar- ticular temperatures to form the nanoparticles, which are subsequently produced by a chemical reaction. 3.2.1 Sol-gel method It is the process by which a suitable chemical solution serves as a precursor. Metal oxide and chloride are com- monsol-gelmethodprecursors.Metaloxidesandchlorides are the most common sol-gel precursors.[11] 3.1.6 The arc discharge method This technique can be used to create a variety of nanostructured materials. Fullerenes, carbon nanohorns (CNHs), carbon nanotubes, few-layer graphene (FLG), and amorphous spherical carbon nanoparticles are some of the carbon-based materials produced. This method is extremely important in the production of fullerene nanomaterials.[35] 3.2.2 Spinning method The synthesis of nanoparticles by spinning is carried out by a spinning disc reactor (SDR). It consists of a rotat- ing disc contained within a chamber or reactor where

  11. 26884011, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/nano.202300038 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [16/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 496 MEKUYE and ABERA physical parameters such as temperature can be con- trolled. It is determined by several factors, including disc surface, liquid/precursor ratio, disc rotation speed, liquid flow rate, and feed location. Magnetic nanoparticles were created using spinning disc processing.[31] reverse micelles are formed in the case of a water-in-oil emulsion, with the hydrophilic heads pointing towards a water-containing core. 3.2.8 Biosynthesis/biological method 3.2.3 method Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) Biosynthesis is an environmentally friendly and green approach to the synthesis of non-toxic and biological nanoparticles. Green synthesis nanoparticles have distinct and enhanced properties that make them suitable for biomedical applications. Microorganisms (bacteria, algae, and fungi), biological templates, and various plant parts are used in biosynthesis.[46] CVD is the deposition of a thin film of gaseous reactants onto a substrate. When a heated substrate comes into con- tact with a combined gas, a chemical reaction occurs.[8] This reaction forms a thin film of product on the substrate surface, which is recovered and reused. The disadvantages of CVD are the requirement of special equipment and the fact that the gaseous by-products are highly toxic.[31] Biosynthesis method using microorganisms Bacteria, fungi, and algae can be used to prepare vari- ous nanomaterials from metal salt aqueous solutions. For example, at the bottom of the sea, magnetotactic bacte- riapreparemagneticparticlesunderanaerobicconditions; photosynthetic bacteria such as Rhodopseudomonas cap- sulate prepare 10–20 nm-sized gold nanoparticles extra- cellularly; the Fusarium oxysporum fungus is used to prepare extracellular silver nanoparticles; and extracel- lular gold nanoparticles are prepared using Sargassum wightiialgae.Thedisadvantageofthisprocessisthatsome bacteria, fungi, and algae are pathogenic, so care must be taken. 3.2.4 Pyrolysis method Pyrolysis is the most commonly used process in indus- tries for the large-scale production of nanoparticles. The advantages of pyrolysis are that it is simple, efficient, cost-effectiveand a continuousprocesswithhighyield.[35] 3.2.5 methods Solvothermal and hydrothermal Biosynthesis method using biological templates Biological templates such as DNA and proteins create unique and sophisticated nanostructures. These nanopar- ticles can be used to create biosensors, bioNEMS, and bio- electronic systems. Proteins are the primary constituents of nanocomposite materials. Ferritin, for example, is the intracellular iron storage protein in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.Itstoresitasironoxideandreleasesitinacon- trolled manner. It acts as a buffer in humans, regulating iron deficiency and overload. This method produces nanostructured materials through a heterogeneous reaction carried out in an aqueous hydrothermal method. Hydrothermal and solvothermal methods are typically used in closed systems. Hydrother- mal and solvothermal methods are useful for producing various nanogeometries of materials such as nanowires, nanorods, nano sheets, and nano spheres. 3.2.6 Soft and hard templating methods Biosynthesis method using different plant parts Plants and plant extracts have also been used in the synthesis of nanoparticles. The phytochemicals found in plants reduce the metal nanoparticles. Flavones, organic acids, and quinones are naturally good reducing agents fornanoparticlepreparation.Goldnanoparticlesofvarious shapes are synthesized from the biomass of the Medicago sativa (alfalfa) and Pelargonium graveolens (geranium) plants. The leaves of Azadirachta indica (neem) are used to make bimetallic Au, Ag, and bimetallic Au core-Ag shell nanoparticles. Aloe vera leaf extract is used to create gold nano triangles. Silver, nickel, cobalt, zinc, and cop- per nanoparticles are also synthesized using plants such as Brassica juncea, Helianthus annuus, and sunflower. Soft and hard template methods are extensively used to produce nanoporous materials. The soft template method is a simple conventional method for the generation of nanostructured materials. In this method, nano porous materials are produced using plenty of soft templates, such as block copolymers, flexible organic molecules, and anionic, cationic, and non-ionic surfactants.[35] 3.2.7 Reverse micelle method The reverse micelle method is also useful for producing nanomaterialswiththedesiredshapesandsizes.Innature,

  12. 26884011, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/nano.202300038 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [16/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License MEKUYE and ABERA 497 4 PROPERTIES OF NANOMATERIALS The properties of nanometer-scale materials differ significantly from those of atoms and bulk materi- als due to surface charge/interaction, crystallography, composition, surface area, and nanoscale size effects, which can be seen in the magnetic, optical, electri- cal, mechanical, chemical, and physical properties of nanomaterials.[35,39,42]The purity and performance of the nanoparticle are determined by its chemical or elemental composition. Particle size is one of the most fundamental and important measurements for nanoparticle characteriza- tion. Electron microscopy is the most commonly used technique to measure the size and distribution. The sur- facearea-to-volumeratioofananoparticlehasasignificant impactonitsperformanceandproperties.Thesurfacearea is most commonly measured using Brunauer–Emmett– Teller (BET) analysis.[42]The purity and performance of nanoparticles are directly related to their chemical or elemental composition. A nanoparticle’s interactions with a target are deter- minedbyeitheritssurfacechargeoritsoverallcharge.One of the most common applications for a zeta potentiometer is to measure the surface charges and dispersion stability of a substance in a solution. Nanomaterials: The scientific study of the arrange- ment of atoms and molecules within crystals and other materials is known as crystallography. Crystallography can be used to determine the structural organization of nanoparticles using powder x-ray diffraction, electron diffraction,orneutrondiffraction.NanomaterialsConcen- tration is needed to quantify the number of nanomaterials dispersed throughout the gaseous phase in order to cal- culate the concentration of air or gas required for the operation. FIGURE 10 size-dependent, as are their effects on the coloring of stained glass.[52] The colors of gold and silver nanomaterials are 4.2 nanomaterials Magnetic properties of The magnetic behavior of elements can change at the nanoscale because of the size of magnetic nanoparti- cles. The nanostructuring of bulk magnetic materials alters the curves, resulting in soft or hard magnets with improvedpropertiesatthenanoscale.Thesizehastheabil- ity to increase coactivity and super-paramagnetic behav- ior at critical grain sizes. Nonmagnetic bulk materials can become magnetic at the nanoscale. For example, gold and platinum are non-magnetic in bulk but mag- netic on the nanoscale.[48]Magnetic nanomaterials are used in biomedical applications such as drug delivery magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and magnetic fluid hyperthermia.[49,50] 4.3 Optical properties of nanomaterials Localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) is an optical property of nanoparticles. Some studies have shown that the line width is influenced by the size of nanoparticles. For example, by decreasing the size of Au nanoparticles, theemissionlightpositionchangesfromtheNear-infrared (NIR) region to the ultraviolet (UV) region. Due to their very small size, nanoparticles can lose their LSPR and becomephotoluminescent.[51]Asaresultofquantumcon- finement in nanomaterials, visible light emission can be tuned by varying the nanoscale dimensions. It has been discovered that as the size of the nanomaterials decreases, the peak emission shifts toward shorter wavelengths. Mat- ter can change color at the nanoscale; for example, gold nanospheres can turn to yellow at 100 nm, greenish yel- low at 50 nm, and red at 25 nm, while silver can also turn orange at 200 nm, light blue at 90 nm, and blue at 40 nm spherical thin film length.[40,52]Their effect appeared as shown in Figure 10. 4.1 nanomaterials Physical properties of The melting temperature of a bulk material is not depen- dent on its size, but the melting point of nanomaterials decreases as the particle size decreases due to the unbounded surface atoms.[47] The total volume of a bulk material remains unchanged when it is subdivided into nanoscale materials, but the collective surface area increases. In comparison to bulk materials, this results in an increase in the surface-to- volume ratio at the nanoscale. The surface molecules or atoms have a high surface energy and a proclivity to agglomerate.[36]

  13. 26884011, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/nano.202300038 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [16/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 498 MEKUYE and ABERA Electrical behavior of nanotubes: A, metal; B, semiconductor; C, graphite.[47,48] FIGURE 11 4.4 nanomaterials Electrical properties of 4.6 Mechanical properties Materials’ mechanical properties of the materials, such as elasticity, ductility, tensile strength, and flexibility, play an important role in their application. Influence on mechanicalpropertiesinnanomaterials,suchasincreased hardness, yield strength, elastic modulus, and toughness compared to bulk materials. Strength and hardness of nanostructured materials increase with decreasing grain size and grain boundary deformation.[24] The increase in mechanical strength is simply due to a lower probability of defects and an increase in imperfec- tion. It improved alloy hardness and toughness as well as ceramic super plasticity.[3,29,35] Nanomaterials can increase conductivity in ceramics, but increase electric resistance in metal. Electron conduction is delocalized in bulk materials, which means electrons canmovefreelyinalldirections.Whenthescaleisreduced to the nanoscale, the quantum effect takes over; elec- tron delocalization occurs along the axis of nanotubes, nanorods, and nanowires. Due to electron confinement, the energy bands are replaced by discrete energy states, causing conducting materialstobehaveaseithersemiconductorsorinsulators. This result indicates that the metal is becoming a semi- conductor. Carbon nanotubes, for example, can be either conductors or semiconductors depending on their nanos- tructure. To reduce the diameter of the wire, the number of electron wave modes contributing to electrical conduc- tivity is reduced in well-defined quantized steps. It shows in Figure 11. 5 NANOMATERIALS APPLICATION OF Nanomaterials are used in many fields of application, as shown in Table 1, which are nanomedicine fields such as nano drugs, medical devices, tissue engineering, and chemical and cosmetic fields such as nanoscale chemi- cals and compounds, paints, and coatings, in materials science. Nanoparticles field, carbon nanotubes, biopoly- mers, paints, and coatings, in the Food Sciences field such as processing, nutraceutical food, nanocapsules, in Environment and Energy field such as water and air purification filters, fuel cells, photovoltaic, Military and Energy field such as biosensors, weapons, sensory enhancement, in Electronics Semiconductors field chips, memory storage, photonic, optoelectronics, and in Scien- tific tools fields, atomic force fields such as a microscopic and scanning tunneling microscope, and agriculture field atomic force, microscopic and scanning tunneling microscope.[51,53,54–62] 4.5 nanomaterials Chemical properties of The applications of this substance are determined by its chemical properties, which include the reactivity of the nanoparticles with the target and their stability and sensitivity to elements such as moisture, environment, heat, and light. The flammability, corrosiveness, anti- corrosiveness, oxidative potential, and reduction poten- tial of the nanoparticles all play a role in determining their applications.[31]Nanomaterials have significantly improved or novel catalytic properties such as reac- tivity, selectivity, and catalysts compared to their bulk analogues.[48]

  14. 26884011, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/nano.202300038 by EBMG ACCESS - ETHIOPIA, Wiley Online Library on [16/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License MEKUYE and ABERA 499 TABLE 1 Field of application Solar cell OLED Super capacitor Transistor Lithium-ion batteries Summary of some applications of nano- materials. Principles of application Convert photon energy in to electricity To emit light Very fast charger or discharger, high power storage For amplifying or switching electrical power Produce rechargeable batteries Nanomaterials Ag NW, Cu NW ITO electrodes Lithium, sodium, potassium Si & Ge Carbon nanotubes, nanosized transition metal oxide, nano-sized composite material Ag and Cu bimetallic nanoparticles Gold and iron-based nanoparticles Citation [2] [2] [2, 63] [2] [5, 2] Imaging Cancer diagnosis Ability to penetrate cells, good analytical signals Biomedical Imaging Used for Cancer and tumor detection The aim of drug delivery includes precise targeting and therapeutic efficacy [51, 2, 11] [51, 11, 9] Drug delivery and cancer therapy Au nanoparticle, silicon nanoparticle, carbon nanotube, nano graphene CNTs Lipid nanoparticles Au nanoparticle [51, 9] Biomedicine COVID-19 diagnosis and Prevention Against monkey pox Gene delivery rSARS-CoV-2 tagging and development of COVID-19 mRNA vaccines Chelating the vires circulating in the blood stream. Block vires host cell binding and penetration Selective reactivity with certain biomolecules and antiviral activity Despite toxicological concerns, detect volatile organic compounds Fertilizer developer Used for the development of robust immune response. Used in treatment of disease caused by bacteria. [8] [16–19] Iron oxide nanoparticle Ag nano particle Fullerenes [19, 20] Medical [55] Food industry TiO2and Ag [11] Agricultural Potential vaccine adjuvant SiO2, ZnO, CuO, Fe, and Mg Aluminum hydro-oxide, gold nanoparticle Gold, silver, copper, titanium, iron nanoparticle ZnSe, CdS, ZnS, CdTe [11] [51] Anti -bacterial activity [51] High sensitivity sensor For detecting varies parameters like electrical resistivity, magnetic permeability, thermal conductivity and capacitance The aim of this is to store a large amount of information To protect air craft from lighting strike Blocking EM radiation [2, 11, 12] Data storage Spintronics & nanowires [2, 11, 12] Aero industry Electromagnetic interference shielding Display Cu Mesh Al, Cu, steel [2] [2] Resolution of the image on the monitor by reducing pixel size To produce faster logic gates CNTs [2] Micro-electronics Carbon nanotube, lead telluride, cadmium sulphide SiO2, Fe2O3 Tungsten carbide CNTs Titanium oxide, calcium carbonate mixed silicon-based polymer CNTs Ultra-hydrophobic water-resistant and strain resistance fabrics Titanium oxide, zinc oxide Carbon block Nanosized clay [2] Construction Cutting tools Environmental Elimination of pollutants Increase the strength of material For hard material Increase growing rate of plants Used as catalysts to react with toxic gases [12, 55] [2] [11, 5] [2, 13–14] Energy Textile Alternating energy storage media Coating textiles such as nylon, to provide antimicrobial characteristics Used in sunscreen and in the cosmetic industry Mechanical reinforcement To make car exterior lighter [55] [2] Cosmetics Car tires Car bumpers [2, 12] [2] [2]

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In general, the physical, chemical, electrical, optical, magnetic, and mechanical properties of bulk materials are independent of their size, but the physical, chemi- cal, electrical, optical, magnetic, and mechanical prop- erties of nanomaterials are dependent on their size. In this review, based on different perspectives, nanoma- terials are classified into five main groups. Based on origin; natural nanomaterials and artificial nanomateri- als’ structural configuration; organic, inorganic, carbon- based, and composite materials’ dimensions; 0D, ID, 2D, and 3D; their pore diameter dimensions; microp- orous materials, mesoporous materials, and mesoporous materials’ potential toxicity; fiber-like nanoparticles, per- sistent granular nanoparticles, and CMAR nanoparti- cles We have critically studied different synthesis methods for nanomaterials. Nanomaterials are synthesized using bottom-up and top-down methods. Lithography, mechan- ical milling or ball milling, laser ablation, sputtering, electron explosion arc discharge, and thermal decompo- sition are examples of the top-down method or physical method.Butbottom-upmethodsareclassifiedaschemical: CVD, sol-gel, spinning, pyrolysis, and biological meth- ods; in biological synthesis, microorganisms (bacteria, algae, and fungi), biological templates, and various plant parts are used. The properties of nanometer-scale mate- rials differ significantly from those of atoms and bulk materials because of the surface charge/interaction, crys- tallography, composition, surface area, and nanoscale size effects that can be seen in the magnetic, optical, elec- trical, mechanical, chemical, and physical properties of nanomaterials. Nanomaterials have a big role for soci- eties due to their fantastic and power-full applications in many fields like agriculture, electrical engineering, medicine, etc. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We acknowledge the type writers for this paper. CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT All the information used during this study is included in this article.

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Energy Mater. 2020, 10, 2001128. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202001128 How to cite this article: B. Mekuye, B. Abera, Nano Select. 2023, 4, 486. https://doi.org/10.1002/nano.202300038

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