Principles of Learning

Principles of Learning How do parents and other influential adults consciously try to shape children’s behavior and attitudes by rewarding good behavior and punishing bad behavior? Can parental behavior also unconsciously shape children’s behavior? If so, how?

Principles of Learning Form into groups of 3-4. Appoint a recorder per group. Write a series of 4 or more statements that explain cause- and-effect relationships between types of stimuli and responses.

Principles of Learning Here is your homework assignment. Recall a situation in which you taught another person a skill or how to do a task. Write a brief account about it (1-page.) Make sure to include a description of the strategy you used in teaching—modeling, rewards, punishments, etc.—and whether or not you were successful.

Principles of Learning Let’s begin by reviewing a 1982 experiment about learning. Turn to p. 241 of the textbook and read “Which Pen Would You Choose?” at the top of the page.

Principles of Learning So how do the behaviorists and the cognitive psychologists differ on the topic of learning? OK—so how does our textbook define learning? An experience which produces a lasting change in behavior or mental processes Behaviorists: reject mental processes and focus only on what can be observed. Cognitive psychologists: in addition to behavior, learning requires that we make inferences about hidden mental processes

Principles of Learning Hello Mustang AP psych students. I’m Winnie, Simoncini’s dog. How does learning differ from instincts? Instinctive (species-typical behavior) is heavily influenced by genetic program- ming. Most of what my fellow animals and I do is instinctive, because our actions tend be influenced very little by experience. Your (human) behavior is more influenced by learning based on experience.

Principles of Learning Can YOU give tell me the definitions of habituation and mere exposure effect? Habituation: involves learning NOT TO RESPOND to stimulation (ignoring the sound of traffic on a busy street—sensory adaptation) Mere exposure effect: a preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed—accounts for the effectiveness of advertising. The heck with the noise—I’ve learned to sleep like a baby. “The few; the proud; the Marines”

Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s experiment:

Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning Controlling a response such that an old response becomes attached to a new stimulus. Example in your lives: Bells at school: begin/end passing periods or fire drills

Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s experiment Pavlov’s experiment: the tuning fork was a neutral stimulus (nothing that had to do with the response to meat prior to conditioning)

Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus: Event that leads to certain predictable response without previous training. Unconditioned response: The salivation—the reaction occurs naturally & automatically given unconditioned stimulus (a reflex)

Classical Conditioning Acquisition—the conditioned, or learned, response NS/UCS = CS and leads to CR = +

Classical Conditioning Conditioned stimulus (CS) Neutral event which, after conditioning, leads to a response. Conditioned response (CR) The salivation caused by the conditioned stimulus— the neutral event that would not normally lead to salivation

Classical Conditioning stop presenting food after sound of tuning fork, sound gradually loses effect. Extinction After time

Classical Conditioning Spontaneous recovery: Spontaneous recovery: conditioned responses may appear following extinction, after time, but generally at a lower intensity. After lengthy time

Classical Conditioning Generalization Animal responds to a second stimulus similar to the original CS, without prior training in second stimulus.

Classical Conditioning Discrimination-- Respond differently to different stimuli

Classical Conditioning John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner and the Little Albert Experiment Conditioned Albert to react fearfully to a white lab rat. Created the fear by repeatedly presenting the rat paired with an aversive UCS—loud sound. Took only 7 trials for Little Albert to react with fear at the appearance of the rat (CS) alone. The fear—extinguished rapidly.

Classical Conditioning Other applications of classical conditioning Sailors and battle stations during World War II—still a strong reaction 15 years later

Classical Conditioning Counter-conditioning Here is a scene from the 1995 movie, French Kiss, in which the character Kate undergoes a form of counter-conditioning

Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning in humans Hobart & Mollie Mowrer (1938) Bed-wetting: the bell and pad Alarm = UCS Waking = UR Full bladder = CS UCS + CS= Child wakes (CR)

Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning in humans Taste aversions Sickness after eating something for the first time or after not eating for some time—tend to blame the new food.

Classical Conditioning John Garcia and Robert Koelling (1966) Garcia and Koelling found that rats readily learned an association between flavored water and illness, yet the rats could not be conditioned to associate flavored water with an electric shock delivered through a grid on the floor of the test chamber

Classical Conditioning Taste aversions: a challenge to Pavlov The tendency to develop taste aversions appears to be part of our biological nature; therefore, taste aversions are not a simple classically conditioned response Garcia et al used classical (aversive) conditioning to dissuade wild coyotes from attacking sheep. Wrapped toxic lamb burgers in sheepskins and stashed them on sheep ranches—30-50% reduction in sheep attacks

Classical Conditioning Oh boy! Now it’s time for an experiment. We science teachers just love experiments. To begin, I need a volunteer. The Lamp Experiment Materials needed: lamp, table, glass of water & a spoon; plus a volunteer

Operant Conditioning Learning from the consequences of behavior. Subject causes some change in the environment Repeat or eliminate behaviors to get reward or avoid punishment Great job!

Operant Conditioning Edward Thorndike (1898) The Thorndike Puzzle Box (1898) Law of effect: a change in behavior based on the outcome of previous trials

Operant Conditioning Reinforcement stimulus or event that affects the likelihood that an immediately preceding behavior will be repeated.

Operant Conditioning Positive Conditioning vs. Negative Conditioning Positive: strengthens a response by occurring after the response and making the behavior more likely to occur again Negative: the removal of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus (using an umbrella during the rain) Differ: They mean add or apply vs. subtract or remove; not good vs. bad

Operant Conditioning B. F. Skinner and the Operant chamber or “Skinner Box.” Could be set to control the timing and frequency of reinforcement (Contingencies of Reinforcement)

Operant Conditioning The “Skinner Box”: Skinner’s Hypothesis, Methodology, and Results • Rats placed in “Operant chambers” • Shaped to get closer and closer to the bar in order to receive food • Eventually required to press the bar to receive food • Food is a reinforcer

Operant Conditioning Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous schedule

Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning is not limited to simple behaviors—it is used to create new knowledge by building on old knowledge.

Operant Conditioning Shaping—the process in which reinforcement is used to sculpt new responses out of old ones. My assistant coaches and I use shaping when we teach our team new plays or variations on existing plays.

Operant Conditioning We do that by developing response chains: combinations of responses that follow one another in a sequence. That’s right, Coach Merzon. We start by reviewing the basics, like blocking and the numbering of the various holes. Then we teach the blockers more advanced blocking schemes, then how to run a play with all 11 players and then maybe some options. That’s a responsechain—everything builds on something taught before it.

Operant Conditioning Say Coach, don’t the cheerleading coaches also use response chains in teaching us new routines? Uh, sure, Joey! Many teachers and coaches of all sports and activities use response chains and reinforcements: aversive control, negative reinforcement, escape conditioning, avoidance conditioning, and other techniques.

I hope I’ll never have to wear one of these prison suits for real. Operant Conditioning That is so cool—now I understand all the things that happen at practice!

Operant Conditioning Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous schedule Partial schedule Fixed-ratio schedule Reinforcement depends on a specified schedule of responses.

Operant Conditioning Variable-ratio schedule Number of responses needed for reinforcement changes from one time to the next. Fixed-interval schedule Reinforce first response after a predetermined amount of time has elapsed. Time interval always same.

Operant Conditioning Variable-interval schedule The time at which the reinforcement becomes available changes through- out the conditioning procedure. More activity than fixed- interval

Operant Conditioning Primary reinforcers . . . satisfy or reduce a basic, natural need, such as hunger. Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers conditioned reinforcers because without the conditioning process, it would be a neutral stimulus having no positive or negative value.

Operant Conditioning Behavior therapy Contingency Management Used in mental hospitals and prisons—miniature system of rewards called token economies

Operant Conditioning Successive approximations: start with an easy task and making it more difficult to get the same reinforcement Today I got to go pose on the beach after working out for 2 hours. Tomorrow I’ll have to work out for 2 hours, 30 minutes before posing for the ladies on the beach. Sigh. Simoncini is so buff!! What a totally HOT older man!!! Miss Becky is soooo lucky!!!

Operant Conditioning Use of the Premack Principle in education: Dr. Fred Jones From book: Positive Classroom Discipline Preferred Activity Time

Operant Conditioning Aversive control Unpleasant consequences or punishers. Negative reinforcement Takes away an aversive stimulus; removes unpleasant consequences.

Operant Conditioning All right! If I squeeze long enough, I can get what I want. Anything to get his grubby hands off me. I won’t let go until you promise to do my math homework for a week. OK, I’ll do your stupid homework, David. Negative Reinforcement

Operant Conditioning Escape conditioning causes an unpleasant event to stop. Avoidance conditioning preventing an unpleasant situation from happening.

Operant Conditioning Oh boy! It’s time for another experiment. Everyone partner up—one only. Next, between you and your partner decide who is the A person and who is the B person. And take out the rulers you were supposed to bring to class today. OK. A people stay put; B people outside, away from the door.

Operant Conditioning Positive punishment vs. negative punishment Positive punishment requires the application of an aversive stimulus—painful consequences reduce the likelihood of a person repeating that behavior. Omission training (negative punishment) removal of a reinforcer—parents taking away a misbehaving teen’s car keys Unlike reinforcement, punishment must be administered consistently; intermittent punishment is far less effective than punishment delivered after every undesired response

Operant Conditioning Punishment vs. negative reinforcement Punishment is used to decrease a behavior or reduce its probability of recurring. Negative reinforcement—like positive reinforcement—always increases a response’s probability of occurring again Remember: positive and negative in this context means add and remove.

Principles of Learning