Classical Rhetoric

Classical Rhetoric AP Language and Composition

What is Classical Rhetoric, anyway? Meet your guides! Aristotle Cicero Quintilian

Definitions • Generally, the art of discourse, an art that aims to improve the facility of speakers or writers who attempt to inform, persuade, or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. • Aristotlesaid: It is absurd to hold that a man ought to be ashamed of being unable to defend himself with his limbs but not of being unable to defend himself with speech and reason, when the use of reason is more distinctive of a human being than the use of his limbs. • Cicero explained that skilled orators learn not only about the specifics of their case but also about the general questions from which they were derived (the theses). • Quintilian said that there are five traditional parts to a discourse. You’ll learn those shortly!

All right, Mrs. Derbidge, but why? • Because classical rhetoric is still at the heart of exposition, argument, and persuasion. Even now, thousands of years after the basic format of classical rhetoric was conceived and developed, we can see it in writing and speeches, and the forms are studied in colleges and universities around the world. • So our objective today is this: By the end of the period, you’ll be able to recall and explain the three types of appeal, and the five traditional parts of the classical arrangement, called the dispositio and be prepared to apply them.

The Three Types of Appeal Aristotle said that we persuade others by three means: • by the appeal to their reason (logos); • by the appeal to their emotions (pathos); • by the appeal of our personality or our character (ethos). We may use one of these means exclusively or predominately, or we may use all three. Which of these means we use will partly be determined by the nature of the thesis we are arguing, partly by current circumstances, partly (perhaps mainly) by the kind of audience we are addressing.

Let’s move this to long-term memory. • Which appeal focuses on the speaker’s character? • ETHOS • PATHOS • LOGOS • Which appeal focuses on reason or logic? • ETHOS • PATHOS • LOGOS • Which appeal focuses on emotion? • ETHOS • PATHOS • LOGOS The concept of the three appeals is critical. We’ll come back to this constantly throughout the year.

Reread the scenario about Randall Leigh and the bus fare. Then, in your notes, answer the following questions: What kind of persona did Randall try to present to each of his three friends? What assumptions do you think Randall made about each of the three audiences that led him to his decisions about how to present his case? What kinds of plea, evidence, or proof, did Randall employ with each of his audiences? What do you think Brandon, Kim, and Nate knew about Randall—his personality, job, and so on—that led them to react the way they did to his entreaties?

Arrangement, or Dispositio • (1) the exordium or introduction; • (2) the narratio or statement of facts or circumstances that need to be known about the subject of our discourse; • (3) the confirmatio or proof of our case; • (4) the refutatio or discrediting of the opposing views; • (5) the peroratio or conclusion. • Classical rhetoric did deal with those parts and in that sequence; but it was concerned with something more. It was concerned also with the strategic planning of the whole composition.

Cicero said, the orator “ought first to find out what he should say; next to dispose and arrange his matter, not only in a certain order, but according to the weight of the matter and the judgment of the speaker” (De Oratore, I, 31).

How do I decide on the dispositio (arrangement)? • The kind of discourse in which you are engaged—whether deliberative, judicial, or ceremonial. • The nature of your subject—a consideration that in turn will determine the quantity and quality of the matter available to you. • Your own ethos—your personality, your moral and philosophical bias, your limitations and capabilities. • The nature of the audience—their age, their social, political, economic, and educational level, their mood at the moment.

What does this mean? What all of this suggests is that disposition is what Aristotle meant by techne: an art by which one adapts means to an end.

Quintilian’s Advice: Think About These Questions • When is an introduction necessary and when can it be omitted or abbreviated? • When should we make our statement of facts continuous and when should we break it up and insert it throughout? • Under what circumstances can we omit the statement of facts altogether? • When should we begin by dealing with the arguments advanced by our opponents and when should we begin by proposing our own arguments? • When is it advisable to present our strongest arguments first and when is it best to begin with our weakest arguments and work up to our strongest? • Which of our arguments will our audience readily accept and which of them must they be induced to accept? • Should we attempt to refute our opponents’ arguments as a whole or deal with them in detail? • How much ethical appeal must we exert in order to conciliate the audience? • Should we reserve our emotional appeals for the conclusion or distribute them throughout the discourse? • What evidence or documents should we make use of and where in the discourse will this kind of argument be most effective?

Seriously, Quintilian? Well, sometimes. Not all those questions are important for every assignment or occasion. You need to be thoughtful about each essay or argument. Use common sense.

The Exordium, or Introduction • Etymologically, the word introduction means “a leading into.” • The Greek term proemium meant “before the song.” • The Latin term exordium meant “beginning a web”—by mounting a woof or laying a warp (archaic weaving terms). • Generally this preparation of the audience has a twofold aspect: • it informs the audience of the end or object of our discourse, • it disposes the audience to be receptive to what we have to say.

Types of Introduction • Introduction Inquisitive—to show that our subject is important, curious, or interesting. • Introduction Paradoxical—to show that although the points we are trying to establish seem improbable, they must after all be admitted. • Introduction Corrective—to show that our subject has been neglected, misunderstood, or misrepresented. • Introduction Preparatory—to explain an unusual mode of developing our subject; or to forestall some misconception of our purpose; or to apologize for some deficiencies. • Introduction Narrative—to rouse interest in our subject by adopting the anecdotal lead-in. • Ingratiating Oneself with the Audience—to establish our ethos, or credit with the audience, or also to make them more receptive to you.

Guess that introduction… What type of introduction would each of the following individuals be most likely to use?

The Narratio, or Statement of Facts • The statement of fact is fundamentally expository. Here, you inform your audience of the facts that must be known before proceeding to your argument. • Quintilian advises that the narratio be lucid, brief, and plausible. • If your readers (or listeners) already know enough about the topic, you can dispense with this section all together. • You must adapt to the ad hoc situation. Use common sense!

The Confirmatio, or Proof of the Case • This is the section where you write your traditional body paragraphs. You make your arguments (concrete details), and defend them with analysis (commentary). • Generally, how would you want to organize your proof? • A. Strongest arguments to weakest arguments. • B. Weakest arguments to strongest arguments. • Why?

The Refutatio, or Refutation • In an argumentative situation, sometimes we need to consider the opposition’s arguments and dispose of them. This is where the refutatio comes in. • Anticipating objections to your case and confronting them will always help prove your point. This is where a format like “They Say/I Say” can be very helpful. • Most refutations appeal to logos, pathos, ethos, or wit.

The Peroratio, or Conclusion • The Greek term was epilogos, from the verb epilegein, meaning “to say in addition.” • The common Latin term for this part was peroratio, a word which in the prefix per- suggested “a finishing off” of one’s plea. • Instinctively we feel that any piece of writing or speaking needs to be “rounded off” rather than abruptly ending.

Have trouble with conclusions? Well, turn to good old Aristotle. Aristotle said we should try to do four things in our conclusions: to inspire the audience with a favorable opinion of ourselves and unfavorable opinion of our opponents; to amplify the force of the points we have made in the previous section and to extenuate the force of the points made by the opposition; to rouse the appropriate emotions in the audience to restate in a summary way our facts and arguments.

Putting it all together. Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle explains that you have to be thoughtful, all the time about your purpose, the audience, and the techniques you’re using to explain your topic. That means you need to be thoughtful about your arrangement (dispositio) and your appeals (logos, pathos, ethos, wit).

Want to know more? • Check out the following resources, from which I gleaned some of the information! • Corbett, Edward P.J., Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student (Info about Classical Rhetoric) • Pictures of all those famous people came from websites like these: http://vccslitonline.cc.va.us/tragedy/aristotle.htm, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric, http://www.phillwebb.net/history/ancient/Quintilian/Quintilian3.jpg, http://www.boston.com/ae/tv/blog/2012/07/daniel_tosh_apo.html, http://the-hobbitmovie.com/viggo-mortensen-not-in-hobbit-movie/, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bella_Swan, http://www.nndb.com/people/428/000022362/,http://www.americaslibrary.gov/aa/king/aa_king_subj.html,http://images.politico.com/global/news/101215_obama_smile_tax_reut_605.jpg END!

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Classical Rhetoric