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Parathyroid Glands

Parathyroid Glands. Histology Anatomy & Physiology Diseases. Histology. 50/50 parenchymal cells, stromal fat Composed mostly of chief cells and oxyphil cells within adipose stroma (fat) Oxyphil cells: derived from chief cells and increase as one ages Both types make Parathyroid hormone.

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Parathyroid Glands

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  1. ParathyroidGlands Histology Anatomy & Physiology Diseases

  2. Histology 50/50 parenchymal cells, stromal fat Composed mostly of chief cells and oxyphil cells within adipose stroma(fat) Oxyphil cells: derived from chief cells and increase as one ages Both types make Parathyroid hormone

  3. Anatomy Superior glands usually imbedded in fat on posterior surface of middle or upper portion of thyroid lobe Inferior glands near the lower part of thyroid gland Most of blood supply from branches of inferior thyroid artery, although branches from superior thyroid supply at least 20% of upper glands. Glands drain ipsillaterally by superior, middle, and inferior thyroid veins.

  4. Parathyroid

  5. Parathyroid Glands (posterior view of thyroid) Parathyroid Glands are located on the posterior aspect of the thyroid; sometimes the tissue is embedded within thyroid tissue.

  6. Parathyroid

  7. Anatomy & Physiology Usually four – two on each side (2-8 is normal) Parathyroid glands 1. Yellow-brown 2. oval or lentiform structures 3. weigh ~ 50 mg each 4. Measure 3-10 mm x 2-6 mm x 1-4 mm • Lie on the posterior surface of thyroid • May be embedded within thyroid gland • Regulate calcium/phosphate levels • Required for life

  8. Synthesized in chief cells as large precursor – pre-proparathyroidhormone Cleaved intracellularly into proparathyroid hormone then to final 84 AA PTH PTH then metabolized by liver into hormonally active N-term and inactive C-term Parathyroid Hormone

  9. Calcium Homeostasis The parathyroid cells rely on a G-protein-coupled membrane receptor designated the calcium-sensing receptor (CASR), to regulate PTH secretion by sensing extracellular calcium levels PTH secretion also is stimulated by low levels of 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D, catecholamines, and hypomagnesemia.

  10. Calcium Homeostasis • PTH is synthesized in the parathyroid gland as a precursor hormone,preproparathyroid hormone, which is cleaved first to proparathyroid hormone and then to the final 84-amino-acid PTH. • Secreted PTH has a half-life of 2 to 4 minutes. In the liver, PTH is metabolized into the active N-terminal component and the relatively inactive C-terminal fraction

  11. Calcium homeostasis The calcium-sensing receptor (CASR) senses fluctuations in the concentration of extracellular calcium. Increased PTH secretion leads to an increase in serum calcium levels by increasing bone resorption and enhancing renal calcium reabsorption. PTH also stimulates renal 1- Hydroxylase activity, leading to an increase in 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D, which also exerts a negative feedback on PTH secretion

  12. Calcium homeostasis • PTH functions to regulate calcium levels via its actions on three target organs, the bone, kidney, and gut. • PTH increases the resorption of bone by stimulating osteoclasts and promotes the release of calcium and phosphate into the circulation.

  13. Calcium homeostasis At the kidney, PTH acts to limit calcium excretion at the distal convoluted tubule via an active transport mechanism. PTH also inhibits phosphate reabsorption (at the Proximal convoluted tubule) and bicarbonate reabsorption. PTH and hypophosphatemia also enhance 1-hydroxylation of 25-Hydroxyvitamin D, which is responsible for its indirect effect of increasing intestinal calcium absorption.

  14. Parathyroid Diseases Benign adenoma a. Relatively common b. Usually results in hyperparathyroidism Cancers are rare a. Surgical removal gives > 90% cure rate

  15. Parathyroid Diseases • Hyperparathyroidism a. Affects about 100,000 patients per year • Primary Hyperparathyroidism: • occurs in 0.1 to 0.3% of the general population and is more common in women (1:500) than in men (1:2000). • Normal feedback of Ca is disturbed, causing increased production of PTH (does not depend on calcium concentration) • Acts on bone, kidneys, small intestines

  16. Primary Hyperparathyroidism Epidemiology • 25/100,000 • 50,000 new cases yearly • F > M • Incidence increases w/ age • Most in > 50 years old Etiology • Unknown cause • Ionizing radiation exposure?

  17. Hyperparathyroidism Symptoms Kidney stones, painful bones, abdominal groans, psychic moans, and fatigue overtones Kidney stones calcium phosphate and oxalate Osteopenia, osteoporosis, and osteitis fibrosa cystica, is found in approximately 15% of patients with PHPT. Increased bone turnover can usually be determined by documenting an elevated blood alkaline phosphatase level. Peptic ulcer disease, pancreatitis Psychiatric manifestations such as florid psychosis, obtubdation, coma, depression, anxiety, fatigue

  18. Hyperparathyroidism (cont.) • Secondary Hyperparathyroidism • Defect in mineral homeostasis leading to a compensatory increase in parathyroid gland function • Tertiary Hyperparathyroidism • After prolonged over-compensatory stimulation, hyperplastic gland develops autonomous function

  19. Hyperparathyroidism • Hypercalcemia can be from other sources. Intact PTH measurement and elevated PTH level very sensitive for hyperparathyroidism

  20. Hypercalcemia– Etimology • Hyperparathyroidism (most common) • Malignancy (most common in hospitalized) • Lytic metastases to bone • PTHrP producer • Sarcoidosis / granulomatous disease • Hyperthyroidism • Familial hypocalciurichypercalcemia

  21. Renal Complications • Generally the most severe clinical manifestations • Calcium phosphate or Calcium oxalate • Severe renal damage • Hypertension secondary to renal impairment

  22. Bone Disease • Osteitisfibrosacystica • Generalized skeletal demineralization due to an increased rate of bone destruction resulting from hyperparathyroidism • In early descriptions of disease, many had severe bone disease (50-90%), but now 5-15% • Subperiostealresorption – pathognomonic of hyperparathyroidism

  23. Generalized skeletal demineralization due to an increased rate of bone destruction resulting from hyperparathyroidism

  24. Gastrointestinal Manifestations • Peptic Ulcer disease • Pancreatitis • Cholelithiasis – 25-35%

  25. Emotional Disturbances • Hypercalcemia of any cause – assoc w/ neurologic or psychiatric disturbances • Depression, anxiety, psychosis, coma • Severe disturbances not usually correctable by parathyroidectomy

  26. Articular and Soft Tissue • Chondrocalcinosis and Pseudogout 3-7% • Deposits of Calcium pyrophosphate in articular cartilages and menisci • Vascular and Cardiac calcifications

  27. Neuromuscular complications • Muscular weakness, fatigue • More commonly in proximal muscles • Sensory abnormalities also possible

  28. HyperparathyroidCrisis • Most patents w/ hyperparathyroidism chronically ill w/ renal and skeletal abnormalities • Rarely can become acutely ill • Rapidly developing weakness, N/V, weight loss, fatigue, drowsiness, confusion, Azotemia • Uncontrolled PTH production, hyperCa, polyuria, dehydration, reduced renal function, worsening hyperCa

  29. Hyperparathyroid Crisis • Definitive therapy - resection • Must reverse hyperCa first • Diuresis - Saline hydration then Lasix to excrete Ca • Calcitonin - rapid affect, inhibits bone resorption • Steroids - take up to a week • Mithramycin - rapidly inhibiting bone resorption

  30. Treatment • Only Curative treatment - Parathyroidectomy • Who should have surgery? • Many found incidentally, during routine physicals

  31. Who should have surgery? • NIH Consensus statement 1991 • All symptomatic • If Assymptomatic • Markedly elevated serum Ca • H/o episode life-threatening hypercalcemia • Reduce renal function • Kidney stone on Radiograph • Markedly elevated urinary Ca excretion • Substantially reduce bone mass

  32. Standard Neck Exploration

  33. Parathyroidectomy • Must find all four glands • Intraoperative frozen section, PTH measurement useful • If single gland enlarged, removal usually curative • If multiple glands enlarged, removed. Normal just biopsied • If all 4 enlarged (generalized parathyroid hyperplasia) - subtotal (3 1/2 removed) • Can reimplant into forearm muscle

  34. Superior parathyroid • easier to find • more consistent position • just on dorsal surface of upper thyroid • careful for superior thyroid artery and superior laryngeal nerve

  35. Inferior gland less consistent location may be near thymus or inside thyroid careful for recurrent laryngeal nerve betw trachea / esophagus inferior thyroid artery

  36. Success of Surgery • 95% of cases cured at initial neck exploration • If failed intial procedure, can try to localize w/ Radionuclide, detect w/ gamma probe • Sestamibi concentrates in parathyroid tissue • Increasingly used in initial operation • limits dissection • Limits operative time • May need mediastinoscopy

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