INTERACTIONS 1914 - Present

1. INTERACTIONS1914 - Present WAR DIPLOMACY

2. HOME FRONTS • Occupation, collaboration, and resistance • Patterns of occupation varied • Japanese conquests: puppet governments, independent allies, or military control • German conquests: racially "superior" people given greater autonomy • Both Japan, Germany exploited conquered states, peoples • Slave labor conscripted from conquered populations to work in factories • Labor conscripted from Poles, Soviets, Balkans, also Chinese and Koreans • Many local people accepted, collaborated with occupying forces • In Asia, Japanese domination not much different from European domination • Others aided conquerors to gain power in new administration • Anticommunism led some in western Europe to join the Nazi SS troops • Resistance to occupation took many forms • Active resistance: sabotage, assaults, assassination • Passive resistance as well: intelligence gathering, refusing to submit • Resistance in Japan and Germany was dangerous and rare • Occupation forces responded to resistance with atrocities • Brutal reprisals to acts of resistance by both Germans and Japanese • Despite retaliation, resistance movements grew throughout the war • Women and the war • "It's a Woman's War, Too!" • Over half a million British, 350,000 American women joined auxiliary services • Soviet and Chinese women took up arms and joined resistance groups • Jewish women and girls suffered as much as men and boys • Women's social roles changed dramatically • By taking jobs or heading families, women gained independence and confidence • Changes expected to be temporary, would return to traditional role after war • "Comfort women" • Japanese armies forcibly recruited 300,000 women to serve in military brothels • 80 percent of comfort women came from Korea • Many were massacred by Japanese soldiers; survivors experienced deep shame

3. SETTLEMENTS & COLD WAR • Soviet Union and United States vied for nonaligned nations • War left millions of casualties and refugees • At least sixty million people died in WWII, highest in Soviet Union and China • Eight million Germans fled west to British, U.S. territories to escape Soviet army • Twelve million Germans and Soviet prisoners of war made their way home • Survivors of camps and three million refugees from the Balkans returned home • The origins of the cold war (1947-1990) • Unlikely alliance between Britain, USSR, USA held up for duration of war • Not without tensions: Soviet resented U.S.-British delays in European invasion • Postwar settlement established at Yalta and Potsdam • Each Allied power to occupy and control territories liberated by its armed forces • Stalin agreed to support United States against Japan • Stalin's plans prevailed; Poland and east Europe became communist allies • President Truman took hard line at Potsdam, widened differences • Postwar territorial divisions reflected growing schism between USA, USSR • Soviets took east Germany, while United States, Britain, and France took west Germany • Berlin also divided four ways; by 1950 division seemed permanent • Churchill spoke of an "iron curtain" across Europe, separating east and west • Similar division in Korea: Soviets occupied north and United States the south • Truman doctrine, 1947: USA would support "free peoples resisting subjugation" • Perception of world divided between so-called free and enslaved peoples • Interventionist policy, dedicated to "containment" of communism • The Marshall Plan, 1948: U.S. aid for the recovery of Europe • Idea to rebuild European economies and strengthen capitalism • Soviet response: Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) for its satellites • NATO and the Warsaw Pact: militarization of the cold war • 1949, United States created NATO, a regional military alliance against Soviet aggression • 1955, Soviets formed the Warsaw Pact in response • Two global superpowers protecting hegemony with alliances • United Nations, established 1945 to maintain international peace and security

4. COLD WAR IN EUROPE • Postwar Europe • Divided into competing political, military, economic blocs • NATO, European Economic Communities • Warsaw Pact, COMECON • Neutral: European Free Trade Association; Yugoslavia • Western Europe • U.S. allies supported by permanent presence of American army • Parliamentary governments, capitalist economies • Eastern Europe • Dominated by Soviet Union, Red Army, secret police • Communist governments modeled after USSR dominate countries • Germany divided east and west in 1949 • Soviets refused to withdraw from eastern Germany after World War II • Allied sectors reunited 1947-1948, Berlin remained divided as well • Berlin blockade and airlift, 1948-1949 • Soviet closed roads, trains, tried to strangle West Berlin into submission • Britain and United States kept city supplied with round-the-clock airlift • Soviets backed down and ended blockade • The Berlin Wall, 1961 • 1949-1961, refugees from East to West Germany, East to West Berlin • Soviet solution: a wall of barbed wire through the city fortified the border • Former Allied nations objected but did not risk a full conflict over the wall • Nuclear arms race • Terrifying proliferation of nuclear weapons by both sides • NATO and Warsaw Treaty Organization amassed huge weapons stockpiles • By 1960s USSR reached military parity with United States • By 1970 both superpowers acquired MAD, "mutually assured destruction"

5. UNITED NATIONS, 1945

6. COLD WAR ALLIANCES WARSAW PACT ORGANIZATION COMECON NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION CENTRAL TREATY ORGANIZATION S.E. ASIAN TREATY ORGANIZATION ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES

7. THE COLD WAR WORLD, c. 1982

8. COLD WAR CONFLICT • The Korea War, 1951-1953 • Korea divided at 38th parallel; U.S. ally in south, Soviet ally in north • North Korean troops crossed 38th parallel and captured Seoul, June 1950 • U.S. and UN troops pushed back North Korean troops to Chinese border • Chinese troops came in, pushed U.S. forces, allies back in the south • Both sides agreed to a cease-fire in July 1953, again at 38th parallel • Globalization of containment • Western fears of international communism must be contained • Creation of SEATO, an Asian counterpart of NATO • “Domino theory": if one country falls to communism, others will follow • Cuba: nuclear flashpoint • Fidel Castro establishes guerrilla force in mountains, 1953 • Overthrew dictator Batista in 1959 • Castro declared that his government would be socialist, angers USA • Castro seized U.S. properties, killed, exiled political opponents • United States cut off Cuban sugar imports, imposed export embargo • Castro accepted Soviet economic aid and arms shipments • Bay of Pigs fiasco, April 1961 • CIA-sponsored invasion of Cuba failed • Diminished U.S. prestige in Latin America • Cuban missile crisis, October 1962 • Soviet deployed nuclear missiles in Cuba, aimed at USA; claimed Cuban defense • Kennedy blockaded Cuba, demanded removal; two tense weeks • Khrushchev backed down; Kennedy pledged not to overthrow Castro

9. DÉTENTE & DECLINE OF BIPOLAR WORLD • Era of cooperation • Leaders of both superpowers agreed on policy of détente, late 1960s • Exchanged visits and signed agreements calling for cooperation, 1972, 1974 • Concluded Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT), 1972, again 1979 • Demise of détente • Full U.S.-China diplomatic relations in 1979 created U.S.-USSR strain • U.S. weapons sale to China in 1981 undermined U.S.-Soviet cooperation • 1980 Soviet intervention in Afghanistan prompted U.S. economic sanctions • U.S. defeat in Vietnam • 1950s, United States committed to support noncommunist government in South Vietnam • U.S. involvement escalated through 1960s • United States and allies unable to defeat North and South Vietnamese communists • President Nixon pledged in 1968 to end war with Vietnam • U.S. troops gradually withdrew; U.S. phase of war ended in 1973 • North Vietnam continued war effort, unified the nation in 1976 • Soviet setbacks in Afghanistan • Afghanistan had been a nonaligned nation until 1978, pro-Soviet coup • Radical reforms in 1978 prompted backlash • Islamic leaders objected to radical social change, led armed resistance • 1979, rebels controlled much of Afghan countryside; USSR intervened • United States and other nations supported anti-PDPA rebels; struggle lasted nine years • 1989 cease-fire negotiation by UN led to full Soviet withdrawal • Taliban forces captured Kabul and declared Afghanistan a strict Islamic state, 1996 • Cold war countercultural protests in 1960s and 1970s • Cultural criticism of cold war as seen in film Dr. Strangelove, 1964 • European and U.S. students agitated for peace, end to arms race, Vietnam war • Rock and roll music expressed student discontent

10. END OF COLD WAR • Revolution in east and central Europe • Moscow's legacies • After World War II, Soviets had credibility for defeating Nazis • Communism unable to satisfy nationalism in eastern and central Europe • Soviet-backed governments lacked support and legitimacy • Soviet interventions in 1956 and 1968 dashed hopes of a humane socialism • Mikhail Gorbachev, Soviet leader 1985-1991 • 1989, Gorbachev announced restructuring of USSR, withdrawal from cold war • Satellites states informed that each was on its own, without Soviet support • Rapid collapse of communist regimes across eastern and central Europe, 1989 • In Poland, Solidarity leader Lech Walesa won election of 1990 • Communism overthrown peacefully in Bulgaria and Hungary • Czechoslovakia's "velvet revolution" in 1990, divided into Czech Republic, Slovakia • Only violent revolution was in Romania; ended with death of communist dictator • East Germany opened Berlin Wall in 1989; two Germanys were united in 1990 • The collapse of the Soviet Union • Gorbachev's reforms • Gorbachev hoped for economic reform within political and economic system • Centralized economy inefficient, military spending excessive • Declining standard of living, food shortages, shoddy goods • Perestroika: "restructuring" the economy • Tried decentralizing economy, market system, profit motive • Alienated those in positions of power, military leaders • Glasnost: "openness" to public criticism, admitting past mistakes • Opened door to widespread criticism of party and government • Ethnic minorities, especially Baltic peoples, declared independence from USSR • Russian Republic, led by Boris Yeltsin, also demanded independence • Collapse of the Soviet Union, December 1991 • In 1991, conservatives attempted coup; wished to restore communism • With help of loyal Red Amy units, Boris Yeltsin crushed the coup • Yeltsin dismantled Communist party, led market-oriented economic reforms • Regions of ethnic groups became independent; Soviet Union ceased to exist

11. GUERRILLA STRUGGLES • Definition • Small trained groups conduct military operations • Targets associated with government, economy • Avoid conflict with larger, regular military forces • Inspiration • Nationalism • Political Independence • Political Ideology • Religion • Previous Historical Examples • Dutch against Spanish, late 16th and early 17th century • Americans against British, late 18th century • Spanish against Napoleon, early 19th century • Russians against Napoleon, early 19th century • Boers against British in Boer War, late 19th century

12. GUERRILLA MOVEMENTS: VIETNAM • Indochina was a French colony • Nationalist movements arrested by French • Model aims after Chinese nationalist parties • In 1940, Japanese occupy area in agreement with Vichy French • 1945 – 1959 • Ho Chi Minh founds Vietnamese Communist Party • Fought French, Japanese in World War II • Declared Vietnam independent in 1945 • French decided to reassert colonial rule • Viet Minh defeated French 1954 Dien Bien Phu • Vietnam partitioned at 17th parallel • 1959 – 1975 • US assumes roll of aid to anti-communist south • Viet Cong wage war against corrupt South Vietnamese state • Communist guerrilla movements in Laos, Cambodia, too • US troops reach 300,000 but cannot win war • 1968: Tet Offensive broke Viet Cong, US will to win • US eventually withdraws, South fights loosing battle • North Vietnam takes control of South in 1975 • 1979 Vietnam invades Cambodia • To displace murderous Pol Pot Regime • Khmer Rouge use guerrilla warfare against Vietnamese • Other Communist Guerrilla Movements • Mozambique, Angola, Guinea-Bissau against Portuguese • Yugoslavia, Albania against Nazi occupation

13. RELIGIOUS GUERRILLA MOVEMENTS • Iran: 1953 – 1979 • Shah Reza Pahlavi • Modernization equals westernization; export of oil, military take top priority • Ruled with secret police, tyranny • Violent clashes between protestors, police • Ayatollah Khomeni • Traditionalist movement unites opposition; ousts Shah in 1979 • Established Muslim fundamentalist state • Takes US diplomats hostage in 1979, released 1981 • Actively sponsors Muslim terrorist groups abroad • HAMAS: Palestine; FPLO: Radical branch of the PLO • Hezbollah: Lebanon Shites; Islamic Jihad • Afghanistan: 1979 – 2002 • 1979: USSR invades to support pro-Soviet government • Mujahidin forces fight until 1989 • Communist regime collages 1992 after Soviets withdraw troops • 1996 Taliban Islamic Fundamentalist militia take control • Anti-western; anti-women; anti-democracy • Attacks images of west, non-Islamic culture (blew up Buddha statues) • Anti-any group which was not Muslim • Supports Islamic terrorist groups abroad (Osama bin Laden) • US topples regime after it supported 9-11 attacks on US

14. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS • Post-1945 • Era of international cooperation • Many global problems cannot be solved by national governments • Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) • Red Cross, an international humanitarian agency, founded 1964 • Greenpeace, an environmental organization, founded in 1970 • Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch • The United Nations • Founded 1945 "to maintain international peace and security" • Security Council • Permanent Veto Nations: UK, US, France, Russia, China • Not successful at preventing wars, for example, Iran-Iraq war • Often can diffuse tense situations • General Assembly • Each nation has one vote; poor, 3rd world nations dominate • Cannot legislate, but has influence in international community • Often used as a sounding board for world concerns, ignored by West • ECOSOC, UN Commission of Refugees, WHO • More successful in health and educational goals • Eradication of smallpox and other diseases • Decrease in child mortality, increase in female literacy • Human rights: an ancient concept, gaining wider acceptance • Nuremberg Trials of Nazis • Established concept of "crimes against humanity“ • Permanent court sits in Hague, Netherlands for war crimes trials • UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights • Forbids slavery, torture, discrimination • Guarantees basic human rights, freedoms

15. GENOCIDES • Types of Murder • Genocide: Killing of a specific group of people, attempt to wipe out • Democide: Mass murder of people by government • Ethnic Cleansing: Term common when one group attacks, kills another • Armenian Holocaust • First genocide of 20th century • Turks killed 1.5 million Armenians for their support of Russians in World War I • The Holocaust • Long history of anti-Semitism • Created tolerance of Nazi's anti-Jewish measures • At first Nazis encouraged Jewish emigration • Many Jews were unable to leave after Nazis took their wealth • Nazi conquest of Europe brought more Jews under their control • The "final solution" • Began with slaughter of Jews, Gypsies, undesirables in Soviet Union • By 1941, German special killing units had killed 1.4 million Jews • By 1942 Nazis evacuated all European Jews to camps in east Poland • Jewish resistance • Will to resist sapped by prolonged starvation, disease • Warsaw Ghetto Uprising: 60,000 Jews rose up against Germans • Altogether • About 5.7 million Jews perished; more than 2 million Poles died • Almost 98% of all Gypsies were murdered • Other Examples • Democides: Stalin, Mao, Pol Pot (Cambodia), Zaire/Congo • Genocides: Rwanda, Sudan • Ethnic Cleansings: Bosnia, Kosovo, Kurds in Iraq

16. 21ST CENTURY POWER BLOCKS