Student Activism in the 1960’s

1. Student Activism in the 1960’s Campus Unrest, Vietnam, and the Counterculture Alia M. Pustorino

2. Three Major Points of Change • Cyclical generational conflict • In the 1960’s this was vastly differing then in previous years. It was almost as though an entire generation rebelled against social standards. • Continuation of radical politics • Global politics became as, if not more important to the 1960’s generation who were passionate about peace, justice, and equality. • Educational reaction and reform • Educational systems like universities needed to reconsider how they “did business.”

3. The 1960’s: Not Their Parent’s Generation! • A New Voice • Marginalia was not accepted • Counterculture • Experimentation • Freedom • Self Expression

4. Educational Reaction and Reform • Overpopulation • Retention—faculty and students • Selectivity • Traditionalism changed • Multiversity syndrome • Curriculum

5. University Systems • Resulting from the National Defense Education Act (1958) campus enrollment grew from 3,226,038 in 1958 to 6,928,115 in 1968 • Increased enrollments helped to found the community college movement, two-year programs were transformed into universities, and state universities increased professional school offerings • Federal funding like the Higher Ed Facilities and Amendments Acts (1963) both gave rise to university development innovations, and the true contemporary campus—move toward on campus life • In loco parentis models were challenged by students who did not like restrictions like curfews, sign in/out logs, dress codes, drug and alcohol policies and task forces, reports, and meetings which were common place with administration caused sit ins and protests • Faculty encouraged participatory democracy and were also more diverse in scope, expertise, and were also politically active • Media became a major proponent of 1960’s activism

6. Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) • Formed in the mid-1960’s—First demonstration on April 17, 1965 against Vietnam • An offset of the League for Industrial Democracy (LID) • Port Huron Statement written in 1962 • Had about 9 chapters, 100 members at first quickly grew to 32 colleges in 1 yr • Quickly activated resistance groups in the late 1960’s as members came from areas outside of the East coast • Disagreement in factions caused the rift of original members who then formed the Weathermen

7. Young Americans for Freedom (YAF) • Founded in 1960 as a Conservative group • Sharon Statement of purpose creates controversy with more radical groups • Founders based values upon the political writings of William F. Buckley, Jr. and Russell Kirk • First convention in 1963 had 450 voting delegates from American schools • Major push of organization is that of the “stop of red trade”

8. Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)—pronounced snick” • Civil Rights activism begins in 1960 at Shaw University in North Carolina, led by Ella Baker • Initially the SNCC was meant to be the youth sector of the SCLC under MLK, Jr., students had own ideas • Led the Freedom Rides • 1963 March on Washington • Mississippi Freedom Summer • Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party

9. The Black Panthers • Formed in 1966 after the assassination of Malcolm X by Huey Newton, Bobby Seale, and Richard Aoki • Purpose was to fight slavery and oppression by promoting revolution and arming its members • Black Panther seemed to be powerful image and referenced Lowndes County Freedom Organization of Alabama • Founded upon values of Maoism and other revolutionists like Marx and Lenin • Seen as a great threat to US security by FBI under Hoover • 10 point Platform/Program of Revolt called for land, bread, housing, education, clothing, justice, peace, exemption from military service

10. The Nation of Islam and Organization of Afro American Unity • NAI Founded in the 1930’s by Wallace Muhammad to resurrect the spirit of black men and women in the world • Came to prominence in the 1950’s and 60’s under the guidance of leaders like Elijah Mohammed • Organization was criticized for being racist, sexist, and homophobic • Malcolm X forms the AAU on February 15, 1965, he dies on February 21 • The AAU ideals were those of coming together in unity, rediscover history, promote talent and renew culture • “By whatever means necessary…”

11. University of California at Berkeley • University ban on distributing literature (presumably political in nature) instituted in 1964-1965 • Locations for speakers also prohibited and notice was required with approval by university for events • Non-violent student protests led by Mario Savio to promote the Free Speech Movement began on September 30, 1964 and continued through October 1, with a 32 hour immobilization of a police car • University agrees to allow off campus protest by UCB students, counter protest takes place on December 2 with thousands protesting and 814 arrests • Sproule Hall sit in of 1500 and arrest of 773

12. University of California at Berkeley • Faculty counter protest against the university to make attempts to calm students, ask for overturn of revoked free speech • December 8, 1964 students guaranteed amnesty of free speech and political activity by the Academic Freedom Committee • Decision created significant administrative conflicts as faculty disputed decision should fall upon the Board of Trustees and not the faculty, Academic Senate votes against motion • December 18, 1964 the Board of Regents notes that steps taken preserve student freedom of speech

13. Columbia University • Students for a Democratic Society organize demonstrations at Columbia in 1965-66 against allowing CIA recruiters on campus • 1968 protest against organized by Mark Rudd (a Columbia student and active SDS member) after he returned from Cuba on an SDS mission where he observed non capitalist, socialist lifestyle • Social issues resulting from racial segregation, anti war sentiment, and politics all poised in demonstrations against the Ins. For Defense Analysis, the gym, and the takeover of Hamilton Hall, buildings were occupied by 1,000 students, 620 were arrested • 15,000 Columbia students and faculty protest actions that resulted in significant media coverage, resign of President Kirk, and injuries of 148 in continued protests • President Cordier allows for procedural procedures for student participation in university proceedings • “Create two, three, many Columbias!” voice for unrest

14. Kent State Shootings • Vietnam protests and fear of draft cause initial protests on the Kent State campus one of many “nation wide student strikes” • May 1, 1970 Commons demonstration begins with about 100 students • May 2, 1970 Mayor Satrom declares state of emergency on campus asks for National Guard presence, large demonstration and burning of ROTC building begins, over 1,000 students are protesting • May 3, 1970 nearly 1,000 Guard on site to address demonstrations, Governor Rhodes calls protests a direct opposition to higher education in Ohio

15. Kent State Shootings • May 3, 1970 Martial Law declared in Ohio to prevent further rioting • May 3, 1970 11 pm curfew instituted and 10 guard are injured by protesting students • May 4, 1970 protest to be held at noon, University attempted to ban event but 2,000 showed up on the Commons • The National Guard attempted to disperse the students however violence overtook crowd and 67 shots were fired into the crowd resulting in four student deaths and nine wounded of those students two were protesters and two were going to class

16. Ending of An Era… • Nixon presidency heralds in new era still markedby warfare, protest, and scandal • “Law and Order” politics resumes • Nixon draws troops out of Vietnam • Parallel of the American youth protests to those around the world that advocated revolution, peace, and a return to liberal politics of the 1930’s era • What does it all mean? • What are the greater questions to ask?

17. Important Questions to Investigate in the Next Phase of the Study • What is the dominant interpretation of student activism in the 1960’s? • What is the most important, or most known event in the 1960’s that could summate the student activism movement? • What were political conversations taking place during this period? • What do we know about this particular student population?

18. 9 Important References • Students for a Democratic Society. (1962). The Port Huron statement of the students for a democratic society. Drafted at the Students for a Democratic Society National Convention Meeting in Port Huron, Michigan June 11,15, 1962. New York: Grammercy. Retrieved on September 10, 2006, from http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~hst306/documents/huron.html. • Young Americans for Freedom. (1960). The Sharon statement. Drafted at the Young Americans for Freedom Conference in Sharon, Connecticut September 11, 1960. Retrieved on September 10, 2006, from http://www.fiu.edu/~yaf/sharon.html. • Blimling, Gregory. (1999). The Resident Assistant. (5th ed.) Dubuque, IA: Kendal Hunt Publishing Company. • Lewis, J.M, & Hensley, T.R. (1998). The May 4 shootings at Kent State University: The search for historical accuracy. Ohio Council for the Social Studies Review, Vol. 34, 1, 9-21. Retrieved September 13, 2006, from http://dept.kent.edu/sociology/lewis/LEWIHEN.htm • Gilbert, D. (2001). SDS/WUO: Students for a democratic society and the weather underground. Onward, Spring and Summer 2001. Retrieved September 13, 2006, from http://www.prisonactivist.org/pps+pows/davidgilbert/sds-wuo.html • Mark Rudd. (2005, July). Who is Mark Rudd? Retrieved September 10, 2006, from http://markrudd.com/Homepage/Who%20is%20Mark%20Rudd.htm • Southern Christian Leadership Conference. (2005). Our history. Retrieved September 10, 2006, from http://sclcnational.org/net/content/item.aspx?s=25461.0.12.2607 • Black Panthers. (n.d.). What was the Black Panther party? Retrieved September 10, 2006, from http://www.blackpanther.org/legacynew.htm • Malcolm X. (n.d.). Program of the organization of Afro-American unity, Malcolm X, et al. Retrieved from http://www.malcolm-x.org/docs/gen_oaau.htm