The state of nature and social contract theory

1. The state of nature and social contract theory Michael Lacewing enquiries@alevelphilosophy.co.uk © Michael Lacewing

2. The origin of the state • How does political organization begin? Why have a state at all? • Historical • Philosophical: imagine being without it – what reason is there to bring it about? • ‘State of nature’: no political organization, no laws • Everyone is ‘free’; how do we become bound by laws?

3. Hobbes on state of nature • Self-preservation • Conflict of ‘natural right’ • Justice depends on laws • State of ‘war’ • Life is ‘solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short’

4. Hobbes on contract • Self-preservation is threatened: it is rational to agree to political organization • ‘Laws of Nature’: rationality in the service of self-interest • First: ‘That every man, ought to endeavour Peace, as farre as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek, and use, all helps, and advantages of Warre’ • Agree with others to give up natural right and submit to law

5. Why agree? • Egoism: because it is in my self-interest • Contractarianism: the state is the result of an agreement about how to behave that people have reached because they realise it is in their self-interest • This is also ‘rational’: it is rational to do what benefits oneself

6. The social contract • Better not to be harmed by others – hence constraints on others’ behaviour; but better not to be constrained • Solution: agree to constraints given that others agree; not best for me, but best I can get • But before we have agreed, how can we trust others to keep the contract? • Irrational emotions • Short-sighted

7. Prisoner’s Dilemma

8. The ‘free rider’ problem In a situation of trust, if everyone else is acting morally, it is even better to act self-interestedly – at least if you can get away with it. But how can I trust others to keep the contract? The contract is collectively in everyone’s self-interest, but it is in each person’s self-interest to break the agreement – knowing this, we won’t trust each other!

9. Locke on state of nature • Law of Nature is moral: no person may subordinate another, harm his life, health, liberty or possessions (except in self-defence), and furthermore, that we should help each other when this does not harm ourselves • No scarcity: each can provide for themselves, and prefer this over violence • But what if some are violent?

10. Contract and punishment • Equality: we all have the right to punish violations of the Law of Nature • But can we enforce punishment? • Three problems: • Disagreements on violations • Biased application • Lack of power • State solves these problems

11. What kind of state? • Hobbes: we can only be sure that people will keep the contract if they are forced to • State must have the power to create and enforce whatever laws it judges are necessary • Absolute sovereign: a single person or political body on whom there are no restraints of law. • Locke: this is more dangerous than state of nature • Only rational to agree to some form of democracy, in which equality and liberty are preserved

12. Objections • Social contract theory is an unhelpful fiction, because social organization is natural for us • Because it is natural, we don’t need to justify it – we never gave up natural freedom • Hume on cooperation: We need more than we can provide ourselves • We lack power • We lack ability • We can face misfortune

13. Objections • Working as a group: • We have greater power, through division of labour • We can get what we can’t produce ourselves, through exchange of good • We can provide mutual support through misfortune • Rules of justice and punishment are also in our self-interest, and evolve as a result