Anxiety

1. SPORT PSYCHOLOGYChapter 6 Anxiety Lavallee et al. (2004) Sport Psychology: Contemporary Themes (Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke)

2. Introduction, History and Development • Anecdotal evidence suggests ability to cope with pressure is vital for success in sport • Descriptive research confirms this idea: Gould et al. (2002) found that ability to regulate arousal levels is associated with optimal athletic performance • But what is “arousal”/”anxiety”? How does it affect athletic performance? How is it measured? What practical tips help to reduce anxiety in athletes?

3. Introduction, History and Development • “Anxiety” is a construct with three main dimensions - cognitive, somatic and behavioural • At cognitive level, anxiety involves worry and negative appraisal of self/future • At somatic level, anxiety involves rapid heart beat, increased perspiration, shortness of breath and other stress symptoms • At behavioural level, anxiety involves tension, agitation and restlessness

4. Introduction, History and Development • Anxiety has two main types - state anxiety (transient, situation-specific dread) and trait anxiety (general, enduring trait of apprehension) • “Arousal” is a form of undifferentiated bodily energy or alertness which ranges on a continuum from low (in sleep) to high (intense excitement) • Whereas arousal involves undifferentiated energy, anxiety is an emotional label for a negatively interpreted arousal experience

5. Introduction, History and Development • Many top athletes view pre-competitive arousal as sign of excitement rather than anxiety • For example, Tiger Woods (2001): “the challenge is hitting good golf shots when you have to … to do it when the nerves are fluttering, the heart pounding, the palms sweating … that’s the thrill” • Research suggests that arousal can have either a debilitative or a facilitative effect on performance depending on how it is perceived by athlete (Jones and Swain, 1992) • This finding suggests that anxiety scales need to measure direction as well as intensity of emotion

6. Theories and Models • Five main theories describe the relationship between arousal/anxiety and athletic performance 1. “Inverted-U” hypothesis (e.g. Oxendine, 1984) suggests that arousal and performance are related in curvilinear manner: increased arousal held to improve performance up to certain point beyond which further increases may impair it • This theory seems plausible but is difficult to test empirically due to a lack of independent measures of arousal and inadequate specification of point beyond which diminishing returns occur

7. Theories and Models 2. “Drive theory” (e.g. Hull, 1943) postulates a linear relationship between arousal and performance • Largely rejected as simplistic and inaccurate (e.g. cannot explain why some athletes “choke” under high arousal) 3. The “catastrophe” model (Hardy, 1996) which suggests that arousal has different effects on sport performance depending on cognitive anxiety • Specifically, it increases performance when cognitive anxiety is low but may may lead to a sudden (catastrophic) decline in performance when cognitive anxiety is relatively high • Some support for catastrophe theory but its complexity makes it difficult to test

8. Theories and Models 4. “Processing efficiency” theory (Eysenck and Calvo, 1992) which suggests that anxiety may affect processing efficiency (mediated by working memory resources) rather than task effectiveness • Predicts that anxious athletes will have to work harder to maintain same level of performance they would display if not anxious • Promising theory but has received little attention

9. Theories and Models 5. “Conscious processing” hypothesis (Masters, 1992) suggests that anxiety may cause “paralysis by analysis” by encouraging athletes to exert conscious control over previously automated skills • Thus anxiety may induce regression from implicit/automatic control to explicit/verbal control • Supported by finding that skills learned implicitly are more resistant to effects of anxiety than skills learned explicitly (Masters, 1992) • However, this finding not replicated consistently

10. Theories and Models • Why do some athletes “choke”under pressure? • Term “choking” refers to pervasive problem in which there is a sudden sudden impairment or failure of athletic performance due to anxiety • Characterised by anxiety symptoms and feeling that the harder one tries, the worse one’s performance • Has afflicted many sports stars such as Ian Woosnam (golf) and Eric Bristow (darts) • Most likely to be caused by concern with excessive self-consciousness and concern with mechanics of skill execution

11. Methods and Measures • Anxiety tests in sport psychology include physiological and psychometric measures (see review by Smith et al., 1998) • Physiological measures of arousal include heart rate, blood pressure and Galvanic skin response • Although these measures are useful, there is no single agreed physiological index of anxiety • Also, importance of perceptual factors (whether arousal is interpreted positively or negatively) suggests physiological measures are limited

12. Methods and Measures • Self-report tests of anxiety are convenient and popular measures in sport psychology • Typical state anxiety tests are “Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2” (CSAI-2; Martens et al., 1990) and “Mental Readiness Form” (MRF; Krane, 1994) • Common trait anxiety test is “Sport Anxiety Scale” (SAS; Smith et al., 1990) • CSAI-2 has a direction of anxiety scale assessing whether anxiety is perceived as facilitative or debilitative of performance

13. Practical Issues and Interventions Before exploring coping strategies, we need to examine the main causes of anxiety in athletes • Predisposition to anxiety (but note circularity of explanation) • Perceived importance of situation • Negative attributional style (e.g. ascribing poor performance to one’s own lack of ability ) • Perfectionism • Fear of failure • Competition-specific stress

14. Practical Issues and Interventions The following techniques can help athletes to reduce experience of anxiety and improve coping skills: • Understanding that “pressure” is a perception not a fact - hence pressure situations can be cognitively restructured as enjoyable challenges • Learning to interpret arousal signs constructively • Using physical relaxation techniques effectively • Giving oneself specific, task-relevant instructions • Adhering to pre-performance routines • Simulation training: inoculating oneself against anxiety by practising/training under conditions that mimic anticipated pressure situations

15. Case Study David is a 23-year old amateur international golfer with a plus two handicap who is considering a professional career in this sport. He has yet to win a major tournament but has been a runner-up on four occasions. Over the past six months, he has begun to wonder why he seems fated to be “second best”. As a result of this worry, he has become nervous about “closing out” games against opponents and/or playing the last few holes of stroke play events. David has become so anxious that he can almost feel the club shaking in his hands as he chips onto the green. He has read a lot about golf psychology and wonders if he has the “yips”. He has now come to you for advice about this problem.

16. Case Study Questions • With reference to the Theories and Models section in Chapter 6, how would you interpret what is happening in this case study? • With reference to Methods and Measures, what techniques would you employ to help understand and quantify the issues? • With reference to Practical Issues and Interventions, how would you deal with this situation?

17. Study Questions • What does the term “anxiety” mean in sport psychology? How does it differ from “arousal”? What are the main components of the construct of anxiety? • Is anxiety always associated with poor performance in sport? Answer this question with reference to the predictions of three of the following theories: the inverted-U hypothesis, drive theory, catastrophe theory, processing efficiency theory and the conscious processing hypothesis. • What are the advantages and disadvantages of using self-report scales and physiological measures when attempting to assess anxiety in athletes? What can you conclude from the relatively low correlations typically obtained between these two types of measures of this construct? • What practical advice would you give to atop-class athlete who suffers from “performance anxiety”? • What psychological theories have been proposed to explain why some athletes “choke” under pressure? Which of these theories do you believe is most accurate? Why?

18. Further Reading • Burton, D. (1998). “Measuring Competitive State Abnxiety”. In J. L. Duda (ed.),Advances in Sport and Exercise Psychology Measurement (pp. 129-48).Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology • Gould, D., Greenleaf, C., & Krane, V. (2002). “Arousal-Anxiety and Sport”. InT. Horn (ed.), Advances in Sport Psychology (2nd ed., pp. 207-41). Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics • Masters, R. S. W. (1992). “”Knowledge, Knerves and Know-How: The Role of Explicit Versus Implicit Knowledge in the Breakdown of Complex Motor Skill Under Pressure”. British Journal of Psychology, vol. 83, pp. 345-58 • Moran, A. P. (2004). Sport and Exercise Psychology: A Critical Introduction. London: Psychology Press/Routledge • Smith, R. E., Smoll, F. L., & Wiechman, S. A (1998). “Measurement of Trait Anxiety in Sport”. In J. L. Duda (ed.), Advances in Sport and ExercisePsychology Measurement (pp. 105-27). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology • Woodman, T., & Hardy, L. (2001). “Stress and Anxiety”. In R. N. Singer, H. A. Hausenblas & C. M. Janelle (eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology (2nd ed., pp. 290-318). New York: John Wiley