APLIKASI KOGNITIF SAINS (Applied Cognitive Science)

1. APLIKASI KOGNITIF SAINS(Applied Cognitive Science) Cognition can be defined as "the act or process of knowing in the broadest sense; specifically, an intellectual process by which knowledge is gained from perception or ideas" (Webster's Dictionary)  Wilhelm Wundt's laboratory in 1879 to study human thought processes is often used as the beginning of modern psychology.  Psikologi Kognitif menjadi salah satu major approaches disamping behavioral (fokus pd perilaku tampak), psikoanalisa (fokus pada ketidaksadaran) dan humanistik (fokus pada personal growth dan interpersonal relationship)

2. Beberapa Perspektif dalam Psikologi Kognitif • The Information Processing approach focuses on the study of the structure and function of mental processing within specific contexts, environments, or ecologies. • Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues developed the Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain as a way to classify the variety of educational objectives related to what and how we know. • Researchers in the area ofintelligence study how human beings learn from experience, reason well, remember important information, and adapt to the environment. • Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development describes the process and stages by which human beings develop the capacity to engage in abstract symbolic thought, one of the distinguishing features of human activity. • Jerome Bruner and Lev Vygotsky. • Metacognition is another area in cognition that draws from a number of different perspectives and is the study of how we develop knowledge about one's own cognitive system.

3. Information Processing. • A primary focus of this approach is on memory (the storage and retrieval of information)  the model proposes that information is processed and stored in 3 stages (SENSORY MEMORI, SHORT TERM MEMORY, LONG TERM MEMORY)

4. BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN • The intent was to develop a classification system for three domains: the cognitive, the affective, and the psychomotor. • The major idea of the taxonomy is that what educators want students to know (encompased in statements of educational objectives) can be arranged in a hierarchy from less to more complex.

5. INTELLIGENCE E. G. Boring, in the 1920's defined intelligence as whatever intelligence tests measure. Wechsler, defined it as the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his/her environment. Notice that there is a conative aspect to this definition. Sternberg has combined these two viewpoints into the following: Intelligence is the cognitive ability of an individual to learn from experience, to reason well, to remember important information, and to cope with the demands of daily living. Sternberg's Triarchic Theory (Sternberg, 1994) Sternberg believes that intelligence is comprised of three separate, though interrelated abilities: analytical (try to solve familiar problems by using strategies that manipulate the elements of a problem or the relationship among the elements (e.g., comparing, analyzing)), creative(try to solve new kinds of problems that require us to think about the problem and its elements in a new way (e.g., inventing, designing)), and practical (try to solve problems that apply what we know to everyday contexts (e.g., applying, using)). • Sternberg hypothesizes that intelligence relates to, and is demonstrated in, three different aspects: (1) the internal world of information processing, (2) experience and past learning, and (3) the external world of adapting to, shaping and selecting real-world environments.

6. PIAGET • Piaget originally trained in the areas of biology and philosophy and considered himself a "genetic epistemologist." He was mainly interested in the biological influences on "how we come to know." He believed that what distinguishes human beings from other animals is our ability to do "abstract symbolic reasoning." • Piaget's views are often compared with those of Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934), who looked more to social interaction as the primary source of cognition and behavior. • Process of Cognitive Development. As a biologist, Piaget was interested in how an organism adapts to its environment (Piaget described as intelligence.) Behavior (adaptation to the environment) is controlled through mental organizations called schemes that the individual uses to represent the world and designate action. This adaptation is driven by a biological drive to obtain balance between schemes and the environment (equilibration). • Piaget hypothesized that infants are born with schemes operating at birth that he called "reflexes." In other animals, these reflexes control behavior throughout life. However, in human beings as the infant uses these reflexes to adapt to the environment, these reflexes are quickly replaced with constructed schemes. • Piaget described two processes used by the individual in its attempt to adapt: assimilation and accomodation. Both of these processes are used thoughout life as the person increasingly adapts to the environment in a more complex manner.

7. Lanjutan PIAGET • Assimilation is the process of using or transforming the environment so that it can be placed in preexisting cognitive structures. Accomodation is the process of changing cognitive structures in order to accept something from the environment. Both processes are used simultaneously and alternately throughout life. An example of assimilation would be when an infant uses a sucking schema that was developed by sucking on a small bottle when attempting to suck on a larger bottle. An example of accomodation would be when the child needs to modify a sucking schema developed by sucking on a pacifier to one that would be successful for sucking on a bottle. • Stages of Cognitive Development. Piaget identified four stages in cognitive development: • Sensorimotor stage (Infancy). In this period (which has 6 stages), intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because its based on physical interactions / experiences. Children acquire object permanence at about 7 months of age (memory). Physical development (mobility) allows the child to begin developing new intellectual abilities. Some symbollic (language) abilities are developed at the end of this stage.

8. Lanjutan PIAGET • Pre-operational stage (Toddler and Early Childhood). In this period (which has two substages), intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use matures, and memory and imagination are developed, but thinking is done in a nonlogical, nonreversable manner. Egocentric thinking predominates • Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early adolescence). In this stage (characterized by 7 types of conservation: number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, volume), intelligence is demonstarted through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible). Egocentric thought diminishes. • Formal operational stage (Adolescence and adulthood). In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. Early in the period there is a return to egocentric thought. Only 35% of high school graduates in industrialized countries obtain formal operations; many people do not think formally during adulthood.

9. METACOGNITION • Definition • Knowledge about one's own cognitive system; thinking about one's own thinking; essential skill for learning to learn • Includes thoughts about (1) what we know or don't know and (2) regulating how we go about learning. • METACOGNITIONconsists of three basic elements: • Developing a plan of action • Maintaining/monitoring the plan • Evaluating the plan • During - When you are maintaining/monitoring the plan of action, ask yourself: • How am I doing? • Am I on the right track? • How should I proceed? • After - When you are evaluating the plan of action ask yourself: • How well did I do? • Did my particular course of thinking produce more or less than I had expected? • What could I have done differently?