Law and citizenship

1. Law and citizenship • National identity based on place of birth, not patriarchy-- • Challenges notions of citizenship found in Europe and for divorced married women, in the U.S. prior to 1933 • Encourages heterosexual reproductive politics • Challenges the Catholic view of celibacy

2. Penal and Civil Code changes in France and Germany • Reduces penalties for infanticide • Criminalizes abortion, but rarely prosecuted • Decriminalizes homosexuality among consenting adults in most countries—now a police matter rather than a moral matter • At same time Civil Codes maintain patriarchy at its core, and these laws influence Latin America

4. How did these laws affect women’s ability to work? • Depended upon women’s ethnicity and race • Married women prevented from going into business without her husband’s permission and had to turn income over to husband • Indigenous women always worked outside the home regardless of marital status, as did other non-white women • Women able to work in rural areas more easily than in urban areas • Urbanization in the 19th and 20th centuries until the 1970s restricted, rather than encouraged women to work

5. The Napoleonic Civil Code of 1804 • http://www.napoleon-series.org/reference/political/code/book1/title05.cfm#chapter6

6. Gender and Latin American Constitutions • Many constitutions enacted in the 19th century, and in many countries rewritten in the 20th century • US constitution often the model with executive, legislative and judiciary branches of government • Men specifically identified as those allowed to vote, although often limited by property and literacy requirements • Social citizenship rarely identified as specifically male---what is social citizenship

7. Argentine Constitution of 1853 • Art. 14.Todos los habitantes de la Nación gozan de los siguientes derechos conforme a las leyes que reglamenten su ejercicio; a saber: de trabajar y ejercer toda industria lícita; de navegar y comerciar;de peticionar a las autoridades;de entrar, permanecer, transitar y salir del territorio argentino; de publicar sus ideas por la prensa sin censura previa;de usar y disponer de su propiedad;de asociarse con fines útiles;de profesar libremente su culto;de enseñar y aprender.

8. Translation • Article 14—All inhabitants of the Nation enjoy the following rights according to the laws that regulate their implementation: the right to exercise and labor in all legal industries; the right to navigate and trade; the right to petition all authorities; to enter, remain and cross the territory of Argentina; the right to publish one’s ideas without prior censorship; the right to use and dispose of one’s property; the freedom of religion; the right to teach and learn.

9. Article 20 • Art. 20.Los extranjeros gozan en el territorio de la Nación de todos los derechos civiles del ciudadano; pueden ejercer su industria, comercio y profesión; poseer bienes raíces, comprarlos y enejenarlos; navegar los ríos y costas; ejercer líbremente su culto; testar y casarse conforme a las leyes.

10. Translation • Article 20 All foreigners residing in the National Territory enjoy the same civil rights as all citizens; they may exercise their industry, commerce or profession; they may possess, purchase, or sell property; navigate rivers and coasts; enjoy freedom of religion; write wills and marry according to the laws.

11. Modern Latin American Civil Codes

12. Cuban Constitution 1974

13. Contemporary Statistics • Percentage of women in the active population (1970 & 1990) • Latin America : 20 % (1970) ; 34 % (1990) • Caribbean: 32% (1970) ; 43 % (1990)Sources: International Labor Organization (United Nations) • Percentage of female and male active population by sector of activity (1994) • Central America : Agriculture : women: 7 % ; men: 41 %Industry: women: 19 % ; men: 23 %Services: women: 74 % ; men: 36 % • South America:Agriculture : women: 10 % ; men: 27 %Industry: women: 14 % ; men: 28 %Services: women: 76 % ; men: 45 % • Caribbean: Agriculture : women: 11 % ; men: 23 %Industry: women: 12 % ; men: 28 %Services: women: 77 % ; men: 49 %Sources: International Labor Organization (United Nations)

14. Percentage of women (15 years old and more) in the total active population (1994) ARGENTINA: 29 % BOLIVIA: 25 % BRAZIL: 28 % CHILE: 29 % COLOMBIA: 23 % COSTA RICA: 22 % CUBA: 33 % DOMINICAN REPUBLIC: 15 % EL SALVADOR: 28 % ECUADOR: 19 % GUATEMALA: 18 % HONDURAS: 21 % MEXICO: 28 % NICARAGUA: 30 % PANAMA: 28 % PARAGUAY: 20 % PERU: 24 % PUERTO RICO: 29 % URUGUAY: 32 % VENEZUELA: 28 %  Sources: International Labor Organization (United Nations) Distribution of the active population (1994)

16. Women and Sexuality • Impact of French Revolution • Significance of Church-State controversies • Lead to civil marriage and divorce laws • Changes relations within relationships • When added to decriminalization of homosexuality, opens spaces for non-reproductive sexualities • Dates of civil marriage laws often reflected church-state tensions rather than feminism: • Guatemala 1823 • Uruguay 1837 • Mexico 1859 Peru 1898 • Argentina 1888 Chile 2004