An Emerging Visible Minority: Muslim American Women Post 9/11

1. An Emerging Visible Minority:Muslim American Women Post 9/11 Dalal Katsiaficas New York University

2. Acknowledgements • Dr. Selçuk R. Şirin • Mixed-Methods Research Team • The 2006 Dean’s Grant for Undergraduate Research • Dr. Gigliana Melzi and Prof. Adina Schick

3. Emerging Visible Minority • Hate crimes targeting Muslim Americans increased 17-fold in the year following the 9/11 attacks (FBI, 2002). • Outward symbols of religiosity of the Muslim faith may include women covering their head and hair (“hijab”), and wearing traditional dress (USDOJ, 2006). • Such symbols of religiosity may be used to identify Muslim Americans as targets for discrimination (USDOJ, 2006).

4. Discrimination and Self-Esteem • Adhering to the norms of a religious Muslim identity is key to negotiating the challenges of living with “conflicting cultural norms” and in an overall “diasporic setting” (Zine, 2001). • In other minority groups, perceived discrimination correlates negatively with self-esteem (Branscombe & Ellemers, 1998; Green, Way & Pahl, 2006; Moradi & Hassan, 2004). • A sense of control fully mediates the link between perceived discrimination and self-esteem (Branscombe & Ellemers, 1998; Moradi & Hassan, 2004).

5. Rationale • Extant research has shown negative effects of discrimination on self-esteem (Branscombe & Ellemers, 1998; Green, Way & Pahl, 2006; Moradi & Hassan, 2004). • Like other visible minorities, Muslim Americans, as well as other individuals who visually resembled them (e.g., Sikhs), were targeted for a backlash of discriminatory attacks because of their appearance (USDOJ, 2001; SALDEF, 2006). • No studies addressing the effects of discrimination for Muslim Americans.

6. Research Questions • 1. What are the effects of outward displays of religiosity on perceived discrimination? • 2. What are the effects of perceived discrimination on self-esteem? • 3. What are the effects of outward displays of religiosity on self-esteem?

7. Conceptual Model Perceived Discrimination Outward Displays of Religiosity Self-Esteem

8. Data Sources • Data were taken from a larger study (N = 120) looking at Muslim American college students (PI: Sirin). • Surveys were administered individually and participants were compensated with gift certificates.

9. Measures • Outward Displays of Religiosity • Demographic Questionnaire • Self-Esteem • Developmental Assets Profile (Search Institute, 2004) • Perceived Discrimination • Assessed experiences in the past 12 months in 5 different settings • Modified version of Krieger and Sidney’s (1996) checklist

10. Participant Demographics • 66 Muslim American women • Age 18-25 • Ethnic Breakdown • 27% Arabs • 35% Pakistani • 38% Other • Traditional Dress • 45.5% Do not wear • 54.5% Wear

11. Descriptive Statistics • 76% of sample experienced discrimination at least once during the previous year in one of five settings (M = 1.11, SD = 1.01). • Traditional Dress (M = 1.49, SD = 1.12) • Not Traditional Dress (M = 0.65, SD = 0.58) • Women who wear traditional dress experienced significantly higher amounts of discrimination. • While shopping (X (4) = 10.12, p < .05) • On the street (X (4) = 19.44, p< .001) • In public places (X (4) = 13.31, p< .01)

12. Mediation Model • Mediation is established when (Baron & Kenny, 1986): • 1) the independent variable significantly predicts the dependent variable; • 2) the independent variable significantly predicts the mediator variable; • 3) the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable is diminished when the mediator variable is controlled for (entered simultaneously in the regression equation).

13. Results • Religious dress significantly predicted perceived discrimination (Standardized Beta = .42). • Perceived discrimination significantly predicted higher self-esteem (Standardized Beta = .34). • Religious dress significantly predicted higher self-esteem (Standardized Beta = .27). • When religious dress and perceived discrimination are combined they predicted higher self-esteem (Standardized Beta = .15). • Perceived discrimination partially mediates the relationship between outward displays of religiosity and self-esteem.

14. Perceived Discrimination as a Mediator Perceived Discrimination .42 .34 Outward Displays of Religiosity Self-Esteem .27 .15

15. Summary of Results • Traditionally dressed Muslim American women perceived more discrimination and were targeted as a visible minority. • Religious dress increased self-esteem, but it was because of the discrimination they experienced. • For Muslim American women, the faith for which they are discriminated against leads to a higher sense of self-esteem.

16. Conclusions • The combination of religious dress and perceived discrimination counter intuitively predicted higher self-esteem. • Being discriminated against because of their faith as opposed to their race may be a significant difference from other minority populations. • A sense of control over their outward appearance might mediate the relationship between discrimination and self-esteem. • Arab and South Asian populations have a cultural tradition of insulating in times of adversity. • Most importantly, these results show the uniqueness of this population in their ability to transform discrimination into a positive mental health outcome.

17. Thank you. Questions?