English Language Teaching Methodology

1. English Language Teaching Methodology ED 535 Unit Tow Current Teaching Approaches and Models

2. Introduction Current classroom research has focused on producing high standard practices with the aim of producing optimal learning achievement. The main emphasis is on getting the learner actively involved in classroom activities. This entails motivating learners and encouraging personal initiative to suggest some classroom tasks and activities. Current trends also emphasize effective teaching and reflective teachers. Teachers are considered good or bad depending on how effective his/her teaching is and whether he/she promotes their profession by reflection.

3. The Communicative Approach One of the major developments in current linguistic is the notion of communicative competence proposed by Hymes (1971). What is communicative competence? Communicative competence is language knowledge (such as the sound system and grammar) and the social context of language use.

4. General Characteristics: • It focuses on all of the components of communicative competence, not only grammatical or linguistic competence. • It engages learners in actual functional use of language for meaningful purposes. • It treats fluency and accuracy as complementary principles underpinning communicative techniques. • It uses language in unrehearsed context.

5. Does Communicative Approach provide a better environment for learning? The communicative approach, an application of communicative competence, in language teaching emphasizes interaction and group learning. Research showed that complex problem-solving tasks were completed successfully by subjects who interacted with others about what they were doing as they went along.

6. Many (EFL) researchers believe that learners understand problem-solving tasks better when they think about these tasks and discuss their actions with others. Communication (interaction and negotiation with others) promotes learning. So, communicative tasks provide opportunity for meaningful interaction, thus creating a suitable situation for learning.

7. What is the learning goal of the Communicative Approach? It mainly aims at enabling foreign language learners to communicate effectively in the foreign language. In other words, the learner has to be able to understand what other people say and write, and has to be able to express her/himself fluently when speaking and writing to others in different situations. Communicative Approach emphasizes all language skills - listening, speaking, reading and writing.

8. What does a syllabus based on communicative approach consist of? Functions * Greeting *Making a date * Suggestion *Describing people * Introducing people to one another * Describing places * Requesting * Agreeing * Giving information * Refusing * Talking about yourself * Comparing * Talking about feelings * Telling a story * Starting conversation

9. What are the typesof tasksused in such syllabuses? A communicative syllabus should include communicative tasks. These tasks should be presented in the form of problems calling for solutions. The range of exercises and materials presented to the learners should make it necessary to engage in communication; e.g. information sharing and negotiation of meaning. Examples of exercises: 1. Diagrams and formations. 2. Drawing

10. The Role of Learners : The Communicative Approach adopts classroom activities that encourage group workand cooperationamong the members of the class. This implies a different role for the learner from the traditional role of just repeating or doing some sentence-based exercises. The learner is as a cooperative element (negotiator , listener, speaker, reader, writer)

11. The Role of Teachers : The teacher plays a minimum role in the process of presenting materials. The teacher in the Communicative Approach has the following roles: organizer, instructor, participant,guide and helper,friend. Classroom Practices: • Pre- task stage. • Task stage. • Post- task stage.

12. The Natural Approach The natural approach is based on Krashen’s theory of second language learning. Stephen Krashen’s theory has a great influence on EFL/ESL research and pedagogy.

13. His theories were proposed 20 years ago but they are still debated and widely discussed. His theory (with Tracy Terrell) was published in 1983 in The Natural Approach, which includes a comprehensive second language acquisition theory with a curriculum for language classrooms. The influence of the Natural Approach can be seen in current EFL/ESL textbooks and teacher development books such as The Lexical Approach.

14. Krashen’s Five Hypotheses: a. The natural order hypothesis: means that the rules of a second language are acquired in a predictable manner in a way that is similar to first language acquisition.

15. b. The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis: Krashen assumed that adults can develop competences in second languages by acquisition, that is by using language for real communication, and by learning “knowing about” language. Both ways (acquisition and learning) can improve different aspects of second language competence.

16. c. The Monitor Hypothesis: Krashen stated that conscious learning can only be used as a monitor or an editor. He suggests that this conscious linguistic knowledge acts as a ‘monitor’ that changes the output of the acquired system when time and conditions permit. Therefore, when a student is asked to use his/her linguistic knowledge (implicit rules), he/she will use his/her conscious linguistic knowledge as a monitor if given enough time. One of the studies confirms that the subjects made hardly any errors when they were able to monitor their production, yet in casual speech they made many errors.

17. d.The Input Hypothesis: This hypothesis states that humans acquire language in only one way - by understanding messages or by receiving “comprehensible input”. Here Krashen claims that successful “acquisition” occurs by simply understanding input that is a little beyond the learner’s present level. he defined that present “level” as i and the ideal level of input as i +1. In the development of oral fluency, new words and grammar are unconsciously worked out through the use of context, rather than through direct instruction.

18. This hypothesis is also supported by the fact that the first second language utterances of adult learners are very similar to those of infants in their first language. However, it is the results of methods such as Asher’s Total Physical Response that provide the most convincing evidence. e. The Affective Filter Hypothesis: Krashen thought that a mental block, caused by affective factors that prevents input from reaching the language acquisition device. He states that “attitudinal variables relate directly to language acquisition but not language learning.”

19. He cites several studies that examine the link between motivation and self-image, arguing that an “integrative” motivation (the learner wants to “be like” the native speakers of a language) is necessary. He postulates an “affective filter” that acts before the Language Acquisition Device and restricts the desire to seek input if the learner does not have such motivation. Krashen also says that at puberty, this filter increases dramatically in strength. Krashen seems to imply that teaching children, who don’t have this filter, is somehow easier, since ‘given sufficient exposure, most children reach native-like levels of competence in second languages.

20. Pedagogical Applications of the Natural Approach: a. General Foundations: • The goal is ‘the ability to communicate with native speakers of the target language’ Comprehension precedes production — the Silent Period. • Production begins (emerges) naturally.

21. • Acquisition activities are central, though some monitoring may be useful for some people sometimes. • If the learners’ affective barrier is too high (e.g. lack of motivation and low self-image), the learners will achieve low. Speech comes about in stages. • Group work encourages speech. • Speech emergence is characterized by grammatical errors.

22. b. Classroom Techniques: * dialogues interviews — pair work. * opinion polls. * Problem-solving activities.

23. Content-based Instruction (CBI) Origins and Definitions: Content-Based Instruction is generally linked to the beginning of language immersion education in Canada in 1965. CBI is not immersion in which subjects are taught entirely in the foreign language. It is a method of teaching foreign languages when language instruction is integrated with teaching the content areas. Therefore, the foreign language serves as the medium for teaching subject content from the regular classroom curriculum.

24. CBI is specifically defined as “the integration of particular content with language teaching aims the concurrent teaching of academic subject matter and second language skills. CBI approaches view the target language as the tool through which content is learned rather than as the immediate object of study. CBI aims at using a language. A more accurate definition that distinguishes this approach from immersion programs is that CBI is “...an approach to language instruction that integrates the presentation of topics or tasks from subject matter classes (e.g., math, social studies) within the context of teaching a second or foreign language”.

25. The integration of language and content in early language programs puts language into a larger, more meaningful context and provides situations that require real language use. CBI puts the domains of cognitive, academic, and social development together in a meaningful situation. Why CBI? Learners do not learn a language and then use it. They start using it as they are learning it.

26. Requirements of "content" in CBI: 1. Content has to be from the learner’s curriculum; what the learners actually study. 2. Content must be suitable to the grade level of the learners. 3. It must be academic; it can include any topic, theme, or non-language issue. 4. Issues have to be of interest to the learner. 5. It must encourage cooperative learning. e.g. use teamwork. 6. Content must be cognitively engaging and demanding for the learner.

27. What are the characteristics of CBI that make it an effective means for EFL/ESL? 1. It is evident that natural language acquisition takes place in context. CBI provides a context for meaningful communication. 2. CBI provides context for negotiation of meaning, which is known to consolidate learning. 3. As mentioned above, content in CBI must be appropriate to the level of the learners. This means that CBI uses “comprehensible input”, which promotes language learning.

28. 4. It addresses the learners’ needs and interest. Postponing teaching content until language is learnt is impractical and illogical. 5. CBI provides opportunities for cooperative learning, which has been proved to result in improved learning. 6. The incorporation of language and content in one package for instruction is consistent with functional language use; that is meaning changes according to context.

29. 7. CBI incorporates many different thinking skills, and learning strategies which such as: a) information gathering skills, questioning; b) organizing kills: categorizing, comparing, representing; c) analyzing skills: identifying main ideas, identifying attributes and components, identifying relationships, patterns; and d) generating skills: inferring, predicting, and estimating. 8. CBI provides extensive reading. Research on extensive reading in a second language demonstrates that reading coherent extended materials leads to improved language abilities.

30. 9. CBI is supported by research in Educational and Cognitive Psychology. Anderson (1990; 1993) proposed a cognitive learning theory for Teaching. This theory integrates attention to content and language. In this theory, content is integrated with other skills. 10. Research has shown that content-based teaching results in higher achievement in language learning, content learning, and greater opportunities for employment than traditional teaching. It also increases motivation and interest levels. 11. Content-based instruction connects learning to real life. Thus, learners have more opportunities to use the content knowledge and expertise they bring to class.

31. Task-based Instruction (TBI) TBI is teaching language through real life tasks. A task-based classroom is a place in which learners employ the “target language resources they have to solve a problem, do a puzzle, play a game, or share and compare experiences.” (Willis, 1996, p. 53). Meaning is the primary focus of a task. Tasks can vary from social communication tasks to tasks based on academic needs.

32. Definition of task: Willis defines a task as a goal-oriented activity in which learners use language to achieve a real outcome. The main focus in task-based learning is meaning. A task-based approach sees the learning process as learning through doing. It is by primarily engaging in meaning that the learner’s system is encouraged to develop.

33. Basic Characteristics of TBI Classrooms: • Instruction is conducted through learners’ activities. • Learners concentrate on performing specific tasks, the primary focus is meaning. • Tasks have specific goals and outcomes. These must be expressed clearly to the learners. • Tasks have to involve some problem-solving exercises.

34. • Tasks are evaluated on the basis of achieving their goals and outcomes. • The task must be a real-life (authentic) problem. Working on a language exercise such as working with a list of words does not qualify for a real- life task. • Tasks must be of interest to the learners in order to motivate learners to generate ideas and get them involved. • Tasks must create a need to communicate. • Tasks may be solving a problem, playing a game, or sharing information or experience. • Tasks may be solving a problem, playing a game, or sharing information or experience.

35. Format and procedure of using tasks: Tasks are structured according to a specific format. Nunan (1989) proposed a framework in which a task is organized into components. A task should include goals, input, activities, teacher role, learner role, and setting. Goals express the outcomes of the task.

36. Effective and Reflective Teaching The Five Standards for Effective Pedagogy (Tharp, 1999): Standard 1:Joint Productive Activity: Teachers and Learners Producing Together Facilitate learning through joint productive activity between teacher and learners. Standard 2:Language Development: Developing Language and Literacy Across the curriculum.

37. Standard 3:Contextualization: Making Meaning by Connecting School to Learners’ Lives Contextualize teaching and curriculum in the experiences and skills of Learners’ home and community. Standard 4:Challenging Activities: Teaching Complex Thinking Challenge learners toward cognitive complexity. Standard 5:Instructional Conversation: Teaching Through Conversation Engage learners through dialogue, especially the Instructional Conversation.

38. Proof for effective Pedagogy: The application of effective teaching has been proved to be useful. Some teachers used the five standards in their actual teaching. They found out that the learners’ performance improved (Lipka, 1990, and Lee and Fradd, 1996). Systematic programs in various parts of the United States have also shown similar results.

39. How Important is Effective Teaching? The criteria of effective teaching are a part of teacher evaluation. The principles set by the University of British Columbia are general in nature, but they can be modified to suit specific disciplinary approaches to teaching and learning. In general, these principles of effective teaching reflect many aspects of ‘the highest standards of [classroom] teaching” that may be attained.

40. Principle 1. Sets clear goals and intellectual challenges for student learning. Principle 2. Employs appropriate teaching methods and strategies that actively involve learners. Principle 3. Communicates and interacts effectively with learners. Principle 4. Attends to intellectual growth of learners.

41. Principle 5. Respects diverse talents and learning styles of learners. Principle 6. Incorporates learning beyond the classroom. Principle 7. Reflects on, monitors and improves teaching practices.

42. Reflective Teaching Excellent teachers are reflective teachers. They can describe their ideas, beliefs, and values about teaching and learning. They are also able to think about (reflect on) their own and others teaching experience, reframe problems, compare practices with personal theories, and take new actions. How do I reflect on my teaching? 1. Teach! Do it the way you feel it is right! 2. Then think back on the way you conducted your teaching. 3. Describe (e.g. how things went, problems, success).

43. 4. Investigate reasons. 5. Re - frame events in light of several theoretical frameworks. 6. Generate multiple understandings. 7. Decide what to do next. 8. Start it all over again.

44. Selecting the instructional model: • Independent reading (textbooks, journal article, explanatory handout). • Computer- assisted instruction. • Demonstration. • Small group discussion. • Lecture. • Laboratory.

45. Effective teaching Techniques: • State the goals and outcomes clearly so that learners know what they have to attain. • In every lesson, learners must know what they have to achieve, how can they achieve and why. • Involve the learners in the process by having them, for example, present the problem, respond to questions, summarize the findings and discussion, research and report unanswered questions. • Summarize the “take-home’ points at the end of the discussion/activity.

46. • Allow learners to communicate with you. • Allow learners to initiate activities and tasks. • Allow time for free communication (speaking and writing). • Be frank. Praise a student when he/she does well and encourage them when they don’t do well. • Be fair in testing and marking.

47. Knowledge: * Be knowledgeable about what you are teaching. * Don’t assume that your textbook has all the answers to your learners’ questions and satisfies all the learners needs. Be prepared to add some items, or modify part of the book to keep your learners interested. * Don’t assume that all the activities in the learners’ book will work. Yes, you have been told that the activities have been piloted. In real life, these activities may fall apart. You have to be prepared to make changes to those activities in a way that will suit your class. * Encourage and promote cooperative learning.

48. • Goal and outcomes of tasks must be clearly expressed. • Use heterogeneous groups/teams (e.g. on the basis of abilities) of four or five members, working together to achieve certain goals and outcomes. • The members must be situated in a way that allows face-to-face interaction. • Each member must be convinced that he/she has equal chance for success.

49. • The members of a group are positively interdependent; that is the whole group either succeeds or fails. Failure is not related to individuals, but to the whole group. In other words, the members of a group either swim or sink together. • However, each member is individually accountable for performing a specific task with the group activity. • Positive interdependence and individual accountability makes learners realize that although an individual can do something but he/she cannot do everything.

50. When task is completed, each group must reflect on their performance in order to assess their : • Teamwork. • b) the extent to which they have achieved the goals and outcomes of the task. • c) how they helped each other to learn and perform the task. • d) what they will do to improve their performance.