Dr Daunis Auers Department of Political Science University of Latvia auers@lu.lv

1. Dr Daunis AuersDepartment of Political ScienceUniversity of Latviaauers@lu.lv Theories of Europe & Enlargement

4. What is Europe? • European Union – 27 members • Council of Europe – 46 members • EBU – 55 member states • UEFA – 53 members • OSCE – 55 members

5. Europe can be defined: • Geographically (e.g. PIGS) • Politically • Culturally (including religion & language) • Economically • Historically

6. Previous attempts at European unification:

7. The Romans

9. Charlemagne

11. Napoleon Bonaparte

13. Adolf Hitler

14. The Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc

16. Other Unions • Anglo-French Free trade Agreement of 1860 • The German Zollverein created a Customs Union in 1843-1871 & in 1871 all the German states were unified under Bismarck • Benelux monetary union • Nordic union

17. International Organizations • Appeared in the nineteenth century • e.g. World Postal Union of 1870’s • There were 108 different international & administrative conventions by the end of the nineteenth century.

18. The Idea of Europe • Rousseau and Kant • Washington – a ‘United States of Europe’ • Henri de Saint-Simon wrote a pamphlet calling for the ‘reorganization of European society’ into some kind of shared political sovereignty

19. World War One • Kalergi published Pan Europa in 1923: “Europe as a political concept does not exist… the European question will only be solved by means of the union of Europe’s nations… The biggest obstacle to the accomplishment of the U.S. of Europe is the 1000 years old rivalry between the two most populated nations of pan-Europe. Germany and France.”

20. The Briand Plan • A Union of European governments located within the League of Nations at Geneva • A Confederal arrangement keeping national sovereignty intact • Political rather than economic aims stressed • To be managed by a European conference, a permanent political committee & a secretariat • The aim was to establish a tariff-free ‘common market’ and bring an end to war.

21. The Briand Plan Failed Because: • Britain did not support it • The Great Depression of the 1930’s • Briand died in 1932

22. Why theory?

23. Changing Theoretical Models IR Approaches Domestic & Comparative Politics

24. 3 “Pre-theories” of integration • Functionalism (Mitrany) • Federalism (Spinelli) • Transactionalism (Deutsch) • +Jean Monnet

25. After 1951 & 1957 • Focus on explaining integration in the new European Community • Was it economic, social or political? • What was the end-point of integration? • Was it unique to Europe? Or a global trend?

26. Neofunctionalism sought to explain: “how and why they (states) voluntarily mingle, merge and mix with their neighbours so as to lose the factual attributes of sovereignty while acquring new techniques for resolving conflict between themselves.’ (Haas 1960: 610)

27. Neofunctionalism 4 main arguments: • Concept of the state is more complex than realists acknowledge • Interest groups & bureaucrats are not confined to the domestic arena • Non-state actors play an important role in international politics • ‘Spillover’

28. Neofunctionalism 3 types of spillover: • Functional • Political • Cultivated

29. Intergovernmentalism Stanley Hoffmann (1964;1966) • European integration had to be seen in a (changing) global context. • National governments controlled the nature & pace of integration to guard their national interest. • Integration would not spread to ‘high politics’.

30. Late 1980s / 1990s • Eurosclerosis in 1970s / 1980s • New impetus after 1985 led to new theoretical approaches

31. Liberal Intergovernmentalism Andrew Moravcsik (1993) On the basis of 5 case studies he concluded that: • Major integration stages reflected government, not supranational, preferences. • National preferences reflected economic interests, not political biases • Negotiations reflect the relative bargaining power of states. Delegation to supranational institutions only to ensure that all commitments made by states were met.

32. Supranational Governance • Claimed to cut through the old dichotomy • EU was not a single regime, but a series of regimes for different policy sectors.

33. Supranational Governance 3 Key Elements: • Development of transnational society • Supranational organizations with autonomous capacity • European law-making to resolve ‘international policy externalities’

35. Enlargement

38. Who can join? • Article 49 of the Treaty on European Union states that ‘any European state which respects the principles set out in Article 6(1) may apply to be a member of the Union’ • Article 6(1) lists these principles as ‘liberty, democracy, respect for human rights & fundamental freedoms & the rule of law’

39. Enlargement Procedure I • The European Council considers whether the application is acceptable in principle • If yes, the Commission produces an Official Opinion on the application (economic & political position of the state, & recommendation on how quickly to proceed) • If the Commission recommends no, then a plan of action with the applicant country is prepared (e.g. an association agreement)

40. Enlargement Procedure II If the Commission recommends yes, The European Council sets a date to begin negotiations 4. Experts from both sides carry out the negotiations, co-ordinated by the Commission, but overseen by the GAC. 5. When terms are agreed, the European Council formally decides. 6. Accession treaty approved by EP 7. Ratification by candidate & member states 8. Accession

41. An intergovernmental process • Primary actors: • Applicant states • Member states • European Council • Consults Commission & EP. • Commission also carries out the negotiations

42. EU negotiates with groups of states • 4 distinct rounds of enlargement • 1973 First enlargement • 1980s Mediterranean enlargement • 1995 EFTA enlargement • 2004/07 Eastern enlargement • Future Southern enlargement

43. Theorizing Enlargement(Bache & George 2006) • Most literature has been descriptive, rather than analytical • First systematic attempt at theorizing enlargement was made by Schimmelfennig & Sedelmeier (2002) who identified 4 dimensions of research focus

44. Schimmelfennig & Sedelmeier (2002) I • Enlargement policies of the applicants - Why & under what conditions do non-members seek accession? • Enlargement policies of the existing states - Why & under what conditions does a member state favour enlargement to include a particular state

45. Schimmelfennig & Sedelmeier (2002) II 3. Enlargement policies of the EU - When does the EU offer membership rather than some other relationship? Why does it offer it to some, and not others? Under what conditions are new members admitted? 4. Impact of enlargement - How does enlargement affect the distribution of power in the EU? How does it change the EU’s identity, structure & goals?

46. Future Enlargements • Jan Zielonka (2006) has argued that the 2004/2007 enlargement makes anything possible. • Because it was not based on any realistic assessment of the candidate state’s economic or political readiness, it must have been based on geo-political interests • Thus future enlargements will also be based on geo-politics

47. What about Turkey? • It signed an association agreement envisaging future entry in 1963 • Lodged a formal application in 1987, but was rebuffed • Signed a Customs Union in 1995 • Helsinki Council in December 1999 recognized Turkey as an applicant

48. What about Turkey? • It has had problems being accepted as a candidate partly because it has had no “champion” among the member states • Indeed, it has a rival – Greece • Also, France is strongly opposed: Giscard D’Estaing has said that Turkish accession would mean “the end of Europe” • Ongoing division of Cyprus

49. Conclusion • All enlargements have had an impact on the EU • They are the result of political, rather than merely economic, considerations • Also geographic spill-over implies that the EU will continue growing.