Submitted in partial fulfillment of the course SED 570 By Travis Zimmerman

1. From Shop Class to Industrial Technology: A History of Federal Legislation Regarding Vocational Education in Secondary Schools from 1960 – 2006 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the course SED 570 By Travis Zimmerman

2. Organization of Research • Historical context • Public image of vocational programs • Prevailing themes • Dropout Rates • High Risk Students • Social Mobility

3. Questions of Research • At what points in the last forty years did we as the American public decide that the support of vocational education was a key to increasing student interest in graduation? • Do these programs actually affect dropout rates at all? • Do these programs offer a real future in the job market to students who are not willing or prepared to go to college, thus contributing to the social mobility of students?

4. Significance • Knowing the answers to these questions might limit the desire for the reduction of funding in the vocational education programs, or the desire for any kind of educational reform that damages the chances for the social mobility of high-risk youth

5. Hypothesis Generalizations concerning the cyclical nature of federal legislation regarding vocational education in public schools can be made based on the fact that such legislation has repeatedly addressed very similar issues such as academic achievement, economic opportunity, the perceived value of vocational education in public schools, and the availability of vocational education as it relates to high school dropout rates.

6. Null Hypothesis • The issues addressed by federal legislation or the historical context from which they stem over the period of time in question are too disparate to form any generalizations.

7. Assumptions • Reports on social mobility, dropout rates, public image and public testimony regarding vocational education, unless specifically otherwise stated, are representative of the U.S. as a whole --not any individual state.

8. Limitations • National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES), as the principle source for most U.S. Department of Education research studies, will be the primary source of information for this paper.

9. Definition of Terms • Vocational Education – those subjects which deal directly with training in the fields of technology, trade, agriculture and homemaking • Dropout Rate - Percent of individuals who voluntarily withdraw from high school without meeting the necessary requirements for acquiring a high school diploma. This rate in this study does not reflect those students who subsequently obtained a General Equivalency Diploma.

10. Definition of Terms (cont…) • Graduation Rate - For the purposes of this study, graduation rate will be consistent with the National Center for Education Statistics data analyzing the ratio of high school graduates compared with the U.S. population of those 17 years of age. (See NCES data)

11. Definition of Terms (cont…) • Academic Education Track - a high school program that focuses on mathematics, science, social studies and literature and the assessment thereof as the primary conduit through which graduation can be achieved. Such a program will place more emphasis on extra academic subjects in lieu of career or vocational education courses. • Socio-economic class - A wealth-based system of classification divided into three segments, low income, middle income and high income, based on total reported family income from filed tax returns.

12. Definition of Terms (cont…) • Social Mobility - Social mobility is the ability of a person to move from a lower income group to a higher one. This is generally based on opportunity afforded by education and training within a particular discipline or vocation.

13. Review of related literature • Primary Sources • The National Vocational Education (Smith-Hughes) Act of 1917 (Public Law No. 347, Sixty-fourth Congress-S.703) • Press Release: “President Bush Proposes Record $57 Billion for FY 2005 Education Budget” February 2, 2004 by Susan Aspey and Jim Bradshaw

14. Review of Related Literature • Secondary Sources – Reports to Congress • “National Assessment of Vocational Education: Final Report to Congress, Executive Summary” by Marsha Silverberg, Elizabeth Warner, Michael Fong, and David Goodwin • “The Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act of 1998: Background and Implementation” by Rebecca R. Skinner and Richard N. Apling

15. Review of Related Literature • Secondary Sources – Public Image and Issues of Vocational Education • Career Education: a Preposal for Reform by Sidney P. Marland, Jr. • Career Education: Definition and Evaluation published by the American Industrial Arts Association, Colleen P. Stamm, Ed. • “A Federal-Level Legislative Story: The Brief Life of Career Education” by John F. Jennings • The Role of the Secondary Schools in the Preparation of Youth for Employment by Jacob J. Kaufman, Carl J. Schaefer, Morgan V. Lewis, David W. Stevens and Elaine W. House

16. Review of Related Literature • “The Unfinished Agenda: The Role of Vocational Education in the High School” sponsored by the Office of Vocational and Adult Education, Washington, DC • Time Magazine – “Dropout Nation” by Nathan Thornburgh • But What If I Don’t Want to Go to College? : A Guide to Success Through Alternative Education by Harlow G. Unger

17. Discussion - History • Federal Acts • Smith-Hughes Act 1917 • Vocational Education Act of 1963 • Career Education Incentive Act 1977 • Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act of 1984 • No Child Left Behind Act of 2001

18. Discussion - History • Trend – Gradual movement from highly specified allocation of funds for vocational education (1917) to state and local government responsibility in wide application of funds and strict academic accountability requirements for continued funding (2006).

19. Discussion – Public Image • By the 1960s, many key proponents of vocational education recorded many disparities of perception between academic and vocational education. The latter was seen as “second-class” education for people with no real future. This disturbing public image, though less prevalent, still exists today.

20. Discussion – Dropouts and Social Mobility • Legislation aimed at improving vocational education has always included socio-economic factors and dropout rates among the list of policy justifications. • While many people agree that dropout rates have steadily declined since the 1960s, many people disagree on which instruments to trust for accuracy regarding drop-out rates.

21. Discussion – Dropouts and Social Mobility • With the movement in the last decade towards academic achievement as the primary goal of public schools, high stakes testing has played a more important role in the lives of students. Those who do not see college as the ultimate goal of their scholastic career may view the academic class regulations and bias inherent in the tests with more criticism and disdain.

22. Discussion – Dropouts and Social Mobility • According to the NCES, high risk populations– particularly those of low-income status consist of the majority of dropouts in the U.S. • When asked why students dropped out of school, the 3rd most recorded reasons are either a desire to work full time or a desire to make money.

23. Discussion – Dropouts and Social Mobility • Vocational education does contribute to the reduction of the dropout rate in communities in which there is a high degree of cooperation with local industries and the schools. • Those with certifications from vocational education will have a greater chance of employment and opportunities for social mobility.

24. Conclusion • Historically, there has been a trend of increased federal support for vocational education, although recently, earmarked expenditures have been pooled into a general commitment to academic education. • The public image of vocational education has played a large roll in its limited success at reducing dropout rates.

25. Conclusion • The evidence strongly suggests that a reduction in government and state support of vocational education will result in the limiting of opportunity for high-risk populations. However, despite great leaps in federal support in the 60s and 70s, the dropout rate maintained a steady decrement that did not fluctuate with the addition of millions of dollars of taxpayer money.

26. Conclusion • From my research, I conclude that federal support of vocational education has been greatly influenced by many factors dependant on historical context. In this light, no generalizations can be made about what will influence further federal legislation. This may or may not be a result of the limited ability of the federal government to implement policy at the local level.