Political Participation

Political Participation A passive citizenry?

Political Participation • ``actions undertaken by ordinary citizens that are intended, directly or indirectly, to influence the selection of government personnel and/or the policy decisions they make”

In Liberal Democracies • Voting in elections is only one of the activities of political participation. • Institutional context, especially the party system, has a clear impact on electoral or other forms of political participation.

Totalitarian Model of Political Participation • Citizens were involved in politics only when mobilized by the party-state to implement policies already made. • The author of ``Political Participation in the USSR" (1979) suggested that his book might as well be subtitled ``How and why do Soviet politics involve the people?"

In Mainland China • From ``mobilized” political participation to ``optional” political participation”

``Political Participation in Communist China” (1967) • ``mass line” emphasizes direct contact between cadres and masses as the surest means of eliciting popular participation and keeping political leaders in touch with popular demands • In broadest terms, Communist mobilization of the masses has politicized an apolitical population.

``Citizens and Groups in Contemporary China” (1987) • ``Chinese citizens do in fact regularly pursue their interests with a repertoire of tactics tailored to these constraints”

``Political Participation in Rural China” (1988) • In general, males, with ``good" class origins and some education, who were strong, skilled, and in their working prime, participated at higher rates.

Participatory Activities in Mainland China • Some common political activities in a democracy, such as donations for opposition parties or voting for government leaders, do not exist. • Other forms of activities, like reporting to the ``letters and visits offices" or utilizing patron-client relations, would be rare in a liberal democracy.

Five Participatory Modes

Appeals • Complain through the bureaucratic hierarchy • Complain through political organizations • Complain through the trade unions • Complain through deputies to local people’s congresses • …

Adversarial activities • Write letters to newspaper editors • Write letters to government officials at higher levels • Complain through the ``letters and visits” bureaus • …

Cronyism • Use connections • Send gifts to bureaucrats in exchange for help • …

Resistance • Slow-down on the job • Whip up public opinion in work units against leaders • Organize a group of people to fight against leaders • …

Protest • Strike • Participate in demonstration • Sue bureaucrats in court • …

Political Participation in Beijing (Shi 1999) • Peculiarities about Beijing: • Capital of the PRC • Per capita GDP US$3,060 (2001) • 61 institutions of higher education, with total enrollment of 340,000 • 2,328,000 residents have had at least some college education • 1.28 million CCP members

Explanatory variables of political participation • Education • Political interest • Political efficacy • Political knowledge • Civic skills • Party mobilization • …

Political efficacy • Internal efficacy: beliefs about one’s own competence to understand and participate in politics • External efficacy: beliefs about the responsiveness of governmental authorities and institutions to citizen demands

Shi’s findings in Beijing • General level of education increased from 1988 to 1996 • People became more concerned with politics and governmental affairs • Internal efficacy became stronger • Frequency and intensity of political activism increased

Shi’s findings in Beijing • Both adversarial activities and protest increased substantially between 1988 and 1996 • Government activity and education became increasingly important in influencing the level and intensity of political participation

Shi (1999)’s Conclusion • Beijing residents have become more politically sophisticated and more assertive in the articulation of their interests

Compared with TW & HK • traditional orientation • moral government • moral leader • state precedes over individual • elitism (better educated) • paternalism • stability above pluralism

Traditional orientation • People with traditional orientation tend to be: • less educated • older • living in villages and towns • employed in blue-collar jobs • fairly consistent across the 3 societies

Effect on political participation • education is a most important factor • the impact of political interest is far more pronounced in TW & HK • Party membership in ML • HK: more individually-based • traditional orientation has the least influence

Political Participation