Political Participation

1. Political Participation • Schumpeter criticized classical conception of democracy (“rule by the people”) • Political elites more competent than ordinary citizens to make decisions • Politics a “market” where voters/consumers choose among competing elites • Authors stress active citizenship, political participation • Most privileged (more time, money, organization) tend to be most politically active; politicians more responsive to their demands • Political inequality not inevitable • When large numbers mobilized at polls, in interest groups, and through social movements

2. Political Parties • Political parties organize, transmit will of majority to government = heart of any democracy • Committed to winning elections • Educate and mobilize voters • Recruit and nominate candidates • Advocate policies • Parties emerged quickly in U.S., a democratizing force • Expanded participation, mobilized voters, broke down deferential system • Throughout 19th century, parties developed solid organizational bases and mass followings

3. Two-Party Political System • Plurality voting = whoever gets the most votes wins • “Winner-take-all” process for electing President • Strong media bias against third parties • Democratic and Republican parties marginalize splinter parties • In two-party systems, tendency for each party to assemble plurality by melding votes of centrist elements with core supporters • Fosters moderation, stability, and predictability • Limits innovation and representation • Governance vs. representation; plurality vs. PR

4. Critical Elections and Party Decay • Two-party systems limit voter choices; encourage broad coalitions of diverse, sometimes conflicting groups • Citizens seek answers outside existing party system through protests and social movements • Eventually, one party (usually minority party) capitalizes on dissatisfaction by seeking to recruit those whose concerns are not adequately represented • Tidal shift is often referred to as critical or realigning election • Critical or realigning elections are rare • Winning party reshapes ideological agenda; party conflict reorganized around new set of issues • Voters are realigned and party coalitions shift

5. Change in American Party System • Late 19th century highpoint • Powerful, grass-roots, press, nomination process and platforms, turnout high, integrated immigrants • High turnout among low-income voters • Decline when pro-business Republican party took over (1896) • Turnout declined, class bias in turnout emerged • Business groups and middle class reformers weakened parties • merit-based civil service, nonpartisan local races, legal barriers to voting (disenfranchising ¾ of all citizens in the south, mainly blacks and poor, uneducated whites); in the North, residency requirements, early registration depressed turnout • Since, campaigns more candidate-centered, professionalized • Money, polling organizations, political consultants; less reliance on political parties • Wealthy candidates and those with close ties to interest groups have clear advantage

6. Turnout and American Voters • U.S. ranks fourth lowest in turnout among over 34 democratic countries. Why? • Widespread popular cynicism • Younger generation less in the habit of voting • Casting a ballot is especially difficult (registration, voter identification requirements; restrictions on convicted felons) • Elections on Tuesday (not a national holiday or weekend) • Burnham: a hole in American electorate where working-class, less educated, and low-income Americans should be • Least likely to turnout to vote; most in need of policy change • Wayne: “those who are most disadvantaged, who have the least education, and who need a change in conditions the most actually participate the least. Those who are the most advantaged, who benefit from existing conditions and presumably from public policy as it stands, vote more often”

7. Money and Elections • Increasing importance of money; campaign spending has skyrocketed • Citizens United v. Federal Elections Commission (2010) overturned limit on corporate spending • Business firms and wealthy individuals provide most contributions (investments) • Campaigns last longer, cost more, are less regulated, and are financed by a higher proportion of private (rather than public) funds than in any other Western democracy • Increases chances of better-financed candidates • Increases public cynicism about politics • Those at top of income pyramid provide bulk of political contributions • Political finance connected to increasing economic inequalities • Increases in economic inequality and political spending go hand in hand; increase in one contributes to increase in the other

8. New Deal and Reagan Coalitions • Two durable coalitions dominated American politics and policy • New Deal coalition • Led by Democratic party (1932-1968) • Reagan Coalition • Led by Republican party (1980-2008) • Shaped political agenda: defined most pressing issues and policy responses • Policies designed to reward social base, cement power, and ensure reelection • Obama (2008-): will this produce durable realignment?

9. New Deal Coalition • Blacks; Southerners; immigrant Jewish and Catholic workers; Irish; some financiers and corporate executives • Marriage of convenience between Southern, white, segregationist wing (hostile to federal policies benefiting blacks) and Northern, liberal wing based in large urban areas with millions of first- and second-generation working-class immigrants • Johnson’s reliance on Northern Democrats and moderate Republicans to pass legislation outlawing discrimination (Civil Rights Act (1964) and Voting Rights Act (1965)) caused Southerners to desert Democratic party • Weakened by political and cultural conflict in Democratic party (Vietnam War, feminism, gay rights, abortion, crime, etc.) • Traditional working–class economically liberal, socially conservative • Wealthier, more educated supporters economically conservative, socially liberal • Decline of labor unions • 1970s, economic growth faltered, inflation and unemployment increased; couldn’t satisfy demands of constituents

10. Reagan Coalition • White males became more Republican (candidates played to fears of dismantling racial and gender hierarchies) • Base among religious fundamentalists • Business community united behind Republicans • Population growth in suburbs and Sun Belt • Republican Party rebranded by network of highly conservative organizations working with Republican strategists; re-centered party ideologically and geographically (secure base in South and Rocky Mountain states) • Republican supporters • traditional base wealthier voters • Conservative turn secured by white Protestants (especially evangelicals), Catholics, regular religious service attendees • White men, married couples, rural voters • Democratic supporters = Northeast and Pacific Coast; Low-income voters (especially labor union members); African Americans and ethnic minorities; unmarried people; Jews, young, and less religious; Liberal and well-educated voters

11. 2008 Presidential Election • Obama benefited from shift among women, young, and unmarried voters • Pro-Democratic groups growing in size; pro-Republican groups shrinking as proportion of electorate • Strong support among racial and ethnic minorities (increasingly significant proportion of the electorate) • McCain supporters tended to be white, male, Protestant, religiously observant, married, from rural areas and small towns, and fairly affluent • Obama supporters tended to be ethnically and racially diverse, young, female, single, low or high income, and less religiously observant • Obama’s popular vote margin 53%-47%, majorities in 28 states, 2/3 electoral college delegates (365-173) • Regional voting patterns: Obama beat McCain in six traditionally Republican states (North Carolina, Virginia, Florida; Colorado, New Mexico, and Nevada) and three Midwest states (Iowa, Indiana, and Ohio)

12. Polarization and American Politics • Majority of voters consistently support same party’s candidate (red and blue states); only a few change majorities (swing states) • Political polarization tied to ideological polarization • Two parties’ social bases reinforce their distinctive regional bases of support • South switched to staunchly Republican  race, religious observance (especially evangelicals), conservative on economic issues • Fiorina = political parties more ideologically homogeneous; more distinct from each other • Hacker and Pierson = Republican Party moved further to right than Democratic Party to left • Taken over by coalition of hard-right conservative groups, including Christian Right and free-market economic conservatives, organized in churches, interest groups, voluntary associations, and think tanks

13. New Media and Public Opinion • Milestones in 2008 election • election of African American president • effective use of new media (internet) by Obama campaign • Media (newspapers, radio, and TV) continue to play a role • New media (internet, email, blogs, instant messages, social media) increasingly important in fundraising, voter registration, mobilization • Political significance of new media • Some argue it produces more involved, informed public • Others that it increases gap between politically connected and uninterested • Hard to differentiate fact from fiction • May offset increased importance of money in politics

14. Conclusion • Democracy = preference of citizens deserve equal consideration; citizens should have equal ability to influence outcomes • Political participation is slanted toward rich (more advantaged groups) in voter turnout, campaign contributions, and political activism  disproportionate advantage to Republicans • Obama’s victory result of weakening link between wealth and pro-Republican vote; campaign energized millions of voters who are typically less connected (increased turnout) • When citizens are mobilized, political participation, which often reinforces privilege and inequality, can counteract advantages of class, race, and gender • Political parties and elections potentially enable citizens to keep and deepen republican and democratic forms of government • Requires citizens to mobilize, participate, and challenge power of money; tendencies for inequalities in political participation to parallel economic inequalities