Gender Bias and Inclusion

1. Gender Bias and Inclusion • Do we value all children equally? • Is anyone more or less valuable? Gender Bias and Inclusion are controversial topics in education because both topics relate to our moral and intellectual virtues. Therefore, we thought both sides of these topics would be relevant to future educators.

2. Gender Bias and Inclusion

3. Gender Bias in Education – Are Girls Being Shortchanged? Gender bias in education has received much attention for several years, especially in 1992 after the American Association of University Women (AAUW) published the report How Schools Shortchange Girls. Our group examined the topic of Gender Bias in Education. The areas of this topic that will be presented are: • Teacher-Student Interaction • Instructional Materials • Single Sex Education • Possible Solutions (which will be discussed at the end of the topics Gender Bias favoring girls and boys)

4. Teacher-Student Interaction More than 20 years of research on teachers interactions withchildren show that teachers do treat girls and boys differently andthat those differences have a startling effect on the children.Adolescence is when the effects of long-term gender bias become mostapparent (Wellhousen, Childhood Education). • Ways in which teachers treat girls and boys differently are as follows (Sadker & Sadker): • Teachers call on and interact with boys more than girls. • Teachers give boys more “wait time” in class discussions. • Teachers often extend boys answers by asking a follow-up question or by asking them to support their answer. Girls are more likely to receive an “accepted” answer. (Wellhousen, Childhood Education) • Teachers do not apply the same rules to both boys and girls. Boys call out answers (when the teacher does not call on them) eight times more often than girls do.

5. Teacher-Student Interaction (continued) • Teachers assign classroom duties based on gender differences. Even at young stages (when both males and females have similar physical abilities), teachers assign more physically demanding duties to males. (Wellhousen) • Teachers often divide the class based on gender for competitive games and activities. • Girls receive fewer compliments based on ability than do boys. Girls are more likely to be complimented on neatness or appearance, whereas, boys are more likely to be complimented on their educational accomplishments. • Teachers promote learned helplessness in girls. • Teachers often use biased language – using the word he when referring to inanimate objects or unspecified persons. (Wellhousen) • Teachers do not promote a wide variety of activities throughout the day. • Teachers sometimes refer to topics as a “guy” or “girl” thing.

6. Instructional Materials • For teachers, deciding what instructional materials to use for a class is often difficult. In subjects such as history, women are not represented as well as men. (Spring, 80) • Spring states: • The Sadkers found in 1989 elementary schools language arts textbooks that there were from two to three times as many pictures of men as women. • In one 1992 world history textbook, of 621 pages they found only 7 pages related to women.

7. Instructional Materials (continued) Two other authors, Karyn Wellhousen and Zenong Yin, in an article entitled “Peter Pan isn’t a girls’ part” agree with Spring that women are not fairly represented in instructional materials. The authors state: “Examples of bias in instructional resources include an absence or exclusion of females from books, stereotyping both sexes, degradation of girls, and isolation of materials which related to women. Gender biased language,which distorts students' perceptions of reality,continues to be used in published materials. Even though textbook publishers have authors' guidelines for using non-sexist language, the guidelines are not enforced.”

8. Single Sex Education as a Means for Eliminating Gender Bias • There are several strategies that teachers can use to help eliminate gender bias in education, however, it is very difficult for teachers to even realize that they are using biased techniques. Another possible solution to eliminated gender bias is discussed in our textbook, American Education. This solution is single-sex education. • According to Spring, single-sex education would (Spring, 81-82): • Eliminate the problem of female students having to compete with male students for teachers’ attention. • Teachers would not be able to push girls aside to focus their instructional efforts on boys. • Female students might receive the equal opportunity denied to them in a coed classroom.

9. Single-Sex Education as a Solution to Gender Bias in Education • In American Education Spring devotes attention to Susan Estrich, who is an advocate of single-sex education. • According to Spring, Estrich notes that 60 percent of the National Merit Scholarship finalists are boys. (Spring, 81) • Estrich says that single-sex schools are working. Here is the evidence she has to prove it: - In all-girls schools 80 percent of girls take four years of math and science. In coed schools, the average is two years of these two subjects. • - In Fortune 1000 companies, one-third of the female board members are graduates of women’s colleges even though graduates of women’s colleges represent only 4 percent of all female college graduates. - Graduates of women’s colleges earn 43 percent more math and 50 percent of engineering doctorates by all women, and they outnumber all other females in Who’s Who.

10. Single-Sex Education as a Solution to Gender Bias in Education (continued) • Although benefits can be seen for single sex schools, there are several negative effects that these classrooms/schools can have: • According to Valerie Lee, a University of Michigan researcher, in many all girl classrooms still contained high levels of sexist behavior. (Spring, 82) • Valerie Lee also found that male bashing was taking place in some all-female schools. • Lee found that boys in all-male schools engage in serious sexist conversations about women. • “In other words, all-female schools do not do anything about the sexist attitudes of men. In fact, all-male schools might reinforce male sexist behavior.” (Spring, 82) • According to Spring, there is the possibility that single-sex schooling might result in greater academic achievement for girls while doing nothing about sexist attitudes among men.

11. Gender Bias - Are only girls being shortchanged? • Although opinions and research has shown gender bias shortchanging women, men are shortchanged in the classroom as well. • The following are areas in education in which men are shortchanged: • Academic and Professional Achievement • Teacher – Student Interaction

12. Are boys being shortchanged? “Sitting in the same classroom, reading the same textbook, listening to the same teacher, boys and girls receive very different educations." (Sadker, 1994) • In fact, upon entering school, girls perform equal to or better than boys on nearly every measure of achievement, but by the time they graduate high school or college, they have fallen behind. (Sadker, 1994) • Across the country, boys have never been in more trouble: They earn 70 percent of the D's and F's that teachers dole out. They make up two thirds of students labeled "learning disabled." They are the culprits in a whopping 9 of 10 alcohol and drug violations and the suspected perpetrators in 4 out of 5 crimes that end up in juvenile court. They account for 80 percent of high school dropouts and attention deficit disorder diagnoses. (Mulrine, 2001)

13. Are boys being shortchanged? (continued) • Research shows that boys are referred for testing for gifted programs twice as often as girls, which may be because, "...giftedness is seen as aberrant, and girls strive to conform." (Orenstein, 1994) • Boys represent more than two-thirds of all students in special education programs and there is a higher the proportion of male students receiving diagnoses that are considered to be subjective (Chapman, n.d.). – this statement ties in with our other topic, Inclusion. • While medical reports indicate that learning disabilities occur in nearly equal numbers of in boys and girls, it may be the case that, "Rather than identifying learning problems, school personnel may be mislabeling behavioral problems. Girls who sit quietly are ignored; boys who act out are placed in special programs that may not meet their needs." (Bailey, 1992) • David Sadker, a professor at American University in Washington, DC says although much research has been conducted on the topic of how girls perform in math and science, it is actually boys who suffer more from gender bias.

14. Are boys the ones being shortchanged? (continued) • In his article entitled "Gender Equity: Still Knocking at the Classroom Door," Sadker concludes that more understanding is needed in order to eliminate the gender bias that impacts males. "Boys are stereotyped into their gender roles earlier and more harshly than females (Chapman, n.d.). • " In his book Real Boys, author William Pollack, Ph.D., concurs with Sadker. He states that many schools are not suited to the educational and behavioral needs of today's boys. He identifies "different tempos" of learning between the genders, and says girls prefer to learn by watching or listening, while boys tend to learn by doing. As a result, Pollack says, boys tend to act up out of boredom, and therefore be labeled as having a behavioral problem, such as hyperactivity or Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) (Chapman, n.d.).

15. Academic and Professional Achievement • Girls consistently receive better grades than boys in elementary school all the way through college • More women attend college than men. • Boys outnumber girls in special education classrooms five to one (Heller, 2000). We will explain this further later on. • Boys drop out of school at alarming rates far in excess of girls, and, as the Sadkers' study actually demonstrated, young boys are reprimanded far more often than young girls (Heller, 2000). • Girls stay in school longer, cut classes less than boys, and on average earn better grades than boys (Woodard, 1998). • Though boys, on average, outperform girls on standardized math and science tests, girls score higher than boys on standardized reading and writing tests (Woodard, 1998). • Girls, on average, take more academic courses than boys, are more likely than boys to finish high school, and are more likely to go to college(Woodard, 1998).

16. Academic and Professional Achievement (continued) • It is girls who get higher grades in school, who do better than boys on standardized tests of reading and writing, and who get higher class rank and more school honors (Kleinfeld, 1998). • It is young women who enter and graduate from college far more frequently than young men (Kleinfeld, 1998). • It is women who have made dramatic progress in obtaining professional, business, and doctoral degrees (Kleinfeld, 1998). • Females lag behind in two academic areas: mathematics and science achievement. Females also lag slightly behind males in attaining professional, business, and doctoral degrees (Kleinfeld, 1998). • But males lag behind females in two other academic areas and by far wider margins: reading achievement and writing skills (Kleinfeld, 1998).

17. Academic and Professional Achievement (continued) • The percentage of female students in medical school continues to rise--to nearly 50%--which seems to contradict the idea that girls are discouraged from pursuing scientific careers (Woodard, 1998) • Men represent a very small percentage of nurses, elementary teachers, and primary parents, and/or homemakers (Streitmatter, 1994). • There are virtually no male preschool teachers. • Women are more likely to opt for a “male” occupation than a man for a “female” occupation. • From grade school through college, females receive higher grades and obtain higher class ranks. They also receive more honors in every field except science and sports.(Kleinfeld, 1998)

18. Teacher/Student Interaction • In a longitudinal study by the Department of Education, evaluating 25,000 8th to 10th graders, more girls than boys consistently expressed a sense of teachers being interested in them and listening to what they had to say (Heller, 2000). • The elementary school boys that I have seen in my practice for more than two decades have complained of their female teachers favoring their female students (Heller, 2000). • A study in New York City that showed a sharp reduction in the number of referrals for special education and in increase in grades for young boys when they had male teachers (Heller, 2000) • School systems are very definitely not designed for young male children (Heller, 2000).

19. Teacher/Student Interaction (continued) • As for additional survey research that has been done to support the original claim that teachers ignore girls and hurt their self-esteem, we need to recognize the very limited value of survey data plus well-established gender trends for females to blame themselves and males to blame others along with the likelihood that males are going to make themselves look better on any survey of self-assessment (Heller, 2000). • African-American boys scored near the top on self-esteem tests, despite well-documented academic problems (Heller, 2000) • Teachers tend to give boys more attention, both positive and negative • Boys were likely to be told how to solve dilemmas, while girls were more likely to have the teacher provide the solution or do the task for them. • Teachers tended to criticize boys’ performance on an academic task for lack of trying hard enough

20. Teacher/Student Interaction (continued) • Research on gender differences in class participation, school climate, and self confidence provides a welter of conflicting findings, sometimes favoring girls, sometimes favoring boys, and sometimes showing no gender differences at all (Kleinfeld, 1998). • In the view of elementary and high school students, the young people who sit in the classroom year after year and observe what is going on, both boys and girls agree: Schools favor girls. Teacher think girls are smarter, like being around them more, and hold higher expectations for them (Kleinfeld, 1998). • As recent survey research shows, it is boys , especially minority boys, who believe that teachers are not as apt to encourage them to achieve their goals or do their best (Kleinfeld, 1998).

21. Conclusion • “How is it girls are different from boys?” Kevin responded, “Well, they just are. They look different. Their hair is different, their faces are different, their teeth are different and stuff.” -This was a teacher asking a little boy in preschool how girls are different (Streitmatter, 1994) • "Until educational sexism is eradicated, more than half our children will be shortchanged and their gifts lost to society." (Sadker, 1994) • Until we realize that this is a real problem in our society we will never end gender bias in our classrooms. • So the conflict remains, who is being shortchanged? The following slides are ways in which teachers can help eliminate gender bias in their classrooms.

22. Possible Solutions for Eliminating Gender Bias in Education Karyn Wellhousen, the author of an article titled “Dos and don’ts for eliminating bias” in Childhood Education, examines the report by Sadker & Sadker, Failing and Fairness, along side observations in early education classroom settings. Through her research and observations Karyn gives several ideas for teachers to help eliminate bias in education. • Give girls and boys equal time and attention. • - Boys have tendency to respond quickly, wave their hands and draw attention to themselves more so than females. Therefore, it is important to pay attention to and call on those who are not as enthusiastic as well as those who are. (Sadker & Sadker) • - A good example of this is finding ways in which your students can participate equally. One method that has been implemented in some classrooms is giving each student a set number of poker chips. Each student is given an equal number of opportunities to participate – by exchanging a poker chip each time he/she participates.

23. Possible Solutions for Eliminating Gender Bias in Education (continued) • Give all students equal time to respond in discussion. • - Girls are more likely to think about their answers prior to answering, therefore, three to five seconds is beneficial. It gives students the feeling that their teachers are confident that they will have an insightful answer. (Sadker & Sadker, 57-59) • Make the same rules apply to both boys and girls. • - As stated previously, boys call out answers more frequently than girls do. Boys are less likely to be corrected for not following the rules. Therefore, if a teacher is going to correct the females for calling out answers, the boys should be corrected as well. This should be applied to all classroom rules. • Give girls and boys the same opportunities. • - Teachers sometimes assign classrooms duties based on gender. (i.e. boys are more likely to be assigned to duties that require lifting or moving objects, girls are more likely to be assigned to less physical duties.

24. Possible Solutions for Eliminating Gender Bias in Education (continued) • Do NOT use gender to divide the class for competitive games or activities. • - As it would be inappropriate to separate the class by ethnicity, it is also inappropriate based on gender as well. (Wellhousen) • Praise both girls and boys for their ability. Don’t praise girls only for their appearance. • - Girls receive compliments more often than boys on their clothing, hairstyle and overall appearance (Sadker & Sadker, 1994).It has also been observed that teachers praise females for their neatness rather than ability. (Wellhousen) • Do challenge boys and girls. • - Don’t promote learned helplessness in girls. (Wellhousen) • - At school as well as at home, adults challenge boys to find solutions to problems while they yield to girls' requests for assistance. (Sadker & Sadker)

25. Possible Solutions for Eliminating Gender Bias in Education (continued) • Use non-biased language. Do not use the pronoun he when referring to an inanimate object or unspecified person. (Wellhousen) • - Language helps children learn about gender roles. The English language, unfortunately, presents "maleness" as the norm, and children interpret the predominance of male terms to mean there are more males than females. (Wellhousen) • - Many teachers, when referring to firefighters, use the term firemen. In doing so, many students assume that firefighters cannot be females. • Encourage students to take part in a variety of activities throughout the day. • - Legos, blocks, tinker toys, etc promote exploration, experimentation and exploration. Dramatic play promotes the development of language, role playing skills and imagination. Therefore, students should become well rounded in both of these areas (to obtain the education value from both) instead of focusing on what is typical of each gender.

26. Possible Solutions for Eliminating Gender Bias in Education (continued) • Plan activities that address the issue of gender. Talk about fair and unfair treatment. Explore the similarities and differences of males and females and discuss their capabilities. Examine typical stereotypes of each gender. (Wellhousen) • - Do not ignore children when they make sexist remarks. • Provide students with bias-free role models. • - Role models may include people from the community who have nontraditional careers or family members who talk with the class about the nontraditional responsibilities in the home. (Wellhousen) • - Add books that represent a fair number of male and female role models.

27. Gender Bias and Inclusion These two topics seem as though they are unrelated, however, they do overlap – the following slides will introduce the topic of inclusion and then later the two topics will be tied together. + = Relationship?

28. Inclusion: The positive aspects and effects Of inclusion for all.

29. What Is Inclusion? • The term “inclusion” is the most frequently used word to refer to the integration of children with disabilities into regular classrooms. • The phrase “full inclusion” refers to the inclusion of all children with disabilities. (Spring, 86)

30. IDEA • Individuals with Disabilities Act • Requires that children with disabilities be educated in regular education classrooms unless “the nature and severity of the disability is such that education in the regular classes with the use of supplementary aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily.” (www.uni.edu/coe/inclusion/legal/) • Guaranteed equal educational opportunity for all children with disabilities. (Spring, 84)

31. All students are part of a learning community. Diversity becomes a tangible concept. All children are treated and viewed as being equal. There is an improvement in self-concept of all students. Development of personal principles. Reduced fear of human differences. Inclusive classroom may reduce the cost of special education. (www.coe.ilstu.edu/jabraun/students/laodonn/Pros.html) Benefits of Inclusion

32. Resources are often inadequate for many of the students with disabilities. Classroom sizes are too big for the adequate management of an inclusive classroom. Preparing the other students in a classroom for the needs of the student is not always implemented, creating a stressful situation for the general classroom. School administrations and boards are not always actively aware and educated about the inclusion process and do not make informed decisions about the program in their school districts. School districts are not employing enough sufficiently licensed counselors to address the emotional, social, and cognitive needs of all students. (http://www.termpapers-termpapers.com/dbs/b4/ems64.shtml) Disadvantages of Inclusion

33. Inclusion • Isolation of children with disabilities often deprives them of contact with other students. • It denies them access to equipment found in regular classrooms. • Full inclusion, it is believed, will improve the educational achievement and social development of children with disabilities. (Spring, 86)

34. Benefits for Children with Special Needs • affords a sense of belonging to the diverse human family • provides a diverse stimulating environment in which to grow and learn • evolves in feelings of being a member of a diverse community • enables development of friendships • provides opportunities to develop neighborhood friends • enhances self-respect • provides affirmations of individuality • provides peer models • provides opportunities to be educated with same-age peers (www.uni.edu/coe/inclusion/philosophy/benefits.html)

35. Disadvantages for Children with Special Needs • Resources are often inadequate for many of the students with disabilities • Some students with disabilities are less probable to receive an appropriate education. • Some students with severe disabilities need alternative classes and instruction. • Support and services are in place, but not to the appropriate need of many children. (http://ericec.org/faq/i-procon.html) • Appropriate physical accommodations are not always in place before a student is integrated into a general education classroom (http://www.termpapers-termpapers.com/dbs/b4/ems64.shtml) • Many feel that inclusion should be made on an individual basis and may not be appropriate for every child with special needs. (http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content3/inclusion.disab.k12.3.1.html)

36. Benefits for the General Education Students • provides opportunities to experience diversity of society on a small scale in a classroom • develops an appreciation that everyone has unique and beautiful characteristics and abilities • develops respect for others with diverse characteristics • develops sensitivity toward others' limitations • develops feelings of empowerment and the ability to make a difference • increases abilities to help and teach all classmates • develops empathetic skills • provides opportunities to vicariously put their feet in another child's shoes • enhances appreciation for the diversity of the human family (www.uni.edu/coe/inclusion/philosophy/benefits.html)

37. Disadvantages for General Education Students • Preparing the other students in a classroom for the needs of the student is not always implemented, creating a stressful situation for the general classroom. • Regular classroom students are “distracted by the constant disruptions.” • Regular classroom student may begin acting out themselves for attention. • Placement decisions are not made including the needs of the peers in the classroom. (http://www.termpapers-termpapers.com/dbs/b4/ems64.shtml)

38. Benefits for Teachers • helps teachers appreciate the diversity of the human family • helps teachers recognize that all students have strengths • creates an awareness of the importance of direct individualized instruction • increases ways of creatively addressing challenges • teaches collaborative problem solving skills • develops teamwork skills • acquires different ways of perceiving challenges as a result of being on a multi-disciplinary team • enhances accountability skills • combats monotony (www.uni.edu/coe/inclusion/philosophy/benefits.html)

39. Disadvantages for Teachers • Classroom sizes are too big for the adequate management of an inclusive classroom. (http://ericec.org/faq/i-procon.html) • Entire school staff does not indicate a coherent philosophy of inclusion education. • Staff development is not in place in many financially burdened schools. • Many school districts do not have unified programs, making the evaluation counter-productive. • School districts are not employing enough sufficiently licensed counselors to address the emotional, social, and cognitive needs of all students. (http://www.weac.org/resource/june96/speced.htm) • There is not enough time for a teacher to plan and collaborate for all the students. (http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content3/inclusion.disab.k12.3.1.html)

40. Benefits for Society • promotes the civil rights of all individuals • supports the social value of equality • teaches socialization and collaborative skills • builds supportiveness and interdependence • maximizes social peace • provides children a miniature model of the democratic process (www.uni.edu/coe/inclusion/philosophy/benefits.html)

41. Disadvantages for Society • Some feel that it is hard for some students to adjust using the social skills necessary for the appropriate education of other young children. • School administrations and boards are not always actively aware and educated about the inclusion process and do not make informed decisions about the program in their school districts. http://tiger.towson.edu/~kjenki5/researchpaper.htm#Concerns%20Regarding%20Inclusion

42. Gender Bias & Inclusion How are they connected?

43. Gender Bias and Inclusion • Textbooks • Boys Vs. Girls in the Special Ed. Classroom Why more boys in the inclusion program?

44. Gender Bias in the Special Ed. Classroom • Although males and females comprise equal proportions of the school-aged population, males account for approximately two-thirds of all students served in special education In many cases, it is not clear if females are under identified for special education, if males are over-identified, or if real differences exist in the prevalence of disability between males and females. (http://www.iteachilearn.com/uh/meisgeier/statsgov20gender.htm)

45. The Statistics   Gender of Elementary and Secondary-Aged Students with Disabilities, by Disability Category 1994 Elementary and Secondary School Compliance Reports. Male Female Specific Learning Disability 69.3 30.8 Mental Retardation 59.0 41.6 Emotional Disturbance 79.4 21.0  Source: U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights, 1994 Elementary and Secondary School Compliance Reports. (http://www.iteachilearn.com/uh/meisgeier/statsgov20gender.htm)

46. Why is this Happening? • Some researchers cite physiological or maturational differences between males and females as a cause for some disproportionate representation. (http://www.iteachilearn.com/uh/meisgeier/statsgov20gender.htm) • Males maybe referred more because of gender differences between female teachers and male students. (http://www.iteachilearn.com/uh/meisgeier/statsgov20gender.htm) • Female teachers may be more likely to identify boys’ behavior and learning styles as indicative of a disability, inflating the referral of boys for special education evaluation. (http://www.iteachilearn.com/uh/meisgeier/statsgov20gender.htm) • Higher expectations for boys then girls. Girls maybe overlooked if a boys needs help in the classroom. Teachers may have lower expectations for girls. (http://www.iteachilearn.com/uh/meisgeier/statsgov20gender.htm) • The disproportionate representation of males in programs for students with emotional disturbances may reflect a bias in the ways emotional disturbance is defined and/or the instruments used to identify students as eligible under those definitions (http://www.iteachilearn.com/uh/meisgeier/statsgov20gender.htm) • Teachers play a big role as future teachers we have to learn to not favor a certain gender because in the long run we may be hurting the child’s education.

47. Why is this happening continued • According to Glen Young, Learning Disabilities and Adult Education Specialist at the U.S. Department of Education's Office of Vocational and Adult Education,"The issue of gender bias in referring children for special education is based on two issues: the widely held belief that males are more likely than females to have learning disabilities, and that referrals to special education within schools seem to be more based on challenging behavior in the classroom rather than poor academic achievement or deficits.” http://www.famlit.org/Publications/Momentum/February2000/ld.cfm • According to Chris Moran “Some say boys are moved into special education to manage rambunctious behavior. Others say girls who might need special education are overlooked because they hide their problems by withdrawing.”(The San Diego Union-Tribune)

48. Gender Bias in Educational Magazines • According to author Kira Isak Piroski, “Mainstreaming of 5.8 million disabled children, notwithstanding, disability is still not adequately presented in the two most popular children’s magazines Highlights for Children and Sesame Street Magazine sample of all Highlights for Children published from 1961 through 1990 found that only sixty-three disability articles were published during a thirty year period of time.” (http://www.edchange.org/multicultural/papers/literature2.html) • Disability narratives in Highlights are gender biased. Twenty-five narratives featured a male disabled character, eighteen depicted a female disabled character, and nineteen were either mixed, or non-gender specific. Males names dominated titles of stories. (http://www.edchange.org/multicultural/papers/literature2.html)

49. Works Cited 2000, February). Learning Disabilities and Gender Bias inEmployment Context. Retrieved April 14, 2004 from NationalCenter for Family Literact Web site:http://www.famlit.org/Publications/Momentum/February2000/ld.cfm ERIC (2003, March). Inclusion Pros and Cons. Retrieved April 18,    2004 from Educational Resource Information Center, Web site:    www.ericec.org/faq/i-procon.html Illinois State University (n.d.). The Pros & Cons of Inclusion.Retrieved April 17, 2004 from Illinois State University, College ofEducation Web site:http://www.coe.ilstu.edu/jabraun/students/laodonn/Pros.html Bailey, S. (1992) How Schools Shortchange Girls: The AAUW Report. New York, NY: Marlowe & Company. Brinton, B. (2000, March 20). How to prevent gender bias from affecting your child's learning. Retrieved April 4, 2004 from , Web site: www.parentssource.com/article.3.00.html Chapman, A. ("n.d."). Gender bias in education. Retrieved April 5, 2004 from , Web site: www.edchange.org/multicultural/papers/genderbias.html Heller, K.M. (2000). Bias about gender bias in schools. Retrieved April 12, 2004 from , Web site: www.drheller.com/jan95.html

50. Works Cited (continued) Jenkins, K. (2002, May). Using Information Effectively forEducation. Retrieved April 18, 2004 from Towson University,Department of Education Web site:http://tiger.towson.edu/~kjenki5/researchpaper.htm#Concerns%20Regarding%20Inclusion Kleinfeld, J.S. (1998). The myth that schools shortchange girls.  Retrieved April 12, 2004 from , Web site: www.menweb.org/kleinful.htm Meisgeir (2004, April). Gender as a Factor in Special EducationEligibility. Retrieved April 14, 2004 from , I Teach Learn.com Website: http://www.iteachilearn.com/uh/meisgeier/statsgov20gender.htm Moran, C. (2003, February 10). Gender Gap seen in specialeducation. Retrieved April 14, 2004 from , San DiegoUnion-Tribune Web site:http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/education/20030210- 9999_1n10edkids.html Mulrine, A. (2001) Are Boys the Weaker Sex? U.S. News & World Report, 131 (4), 40 48. Orenstein, P. (1994) Schoolgirls: Young Women, Self-Esteem and the Confidence Gap. New York, NY: Doubleday