“On Research in Behavioral Sciences“

1. “On Research in Behavioral Sciences“ Bernd Zimmermann Friedrich-Schiller Yliopisto Jena Turun Yliopisto 27.11.2003

2. Muutamia lähtökysymyksiä(some questions at the beginning) • Miksi tutkimuksia? (Why research?) • Mitä tutkimuksia? (Which research?) • Mitä menetelmiä? (Which methods?) • Mikä olisi hyvä tutkimus?(What might be good research?) • Mikä olisi hyvä esikuva? (Which might be a good model?) • Esim. (e. g.) Freudenthal Prof. Bernd Zimmermann Jena Turun Yliopisto 2003

3. Who was Freudenthal? • One of the most famous and influential math educators of the last century (except Pólya) • Excellent mathematician (esp. geometry), University of Utrecht NL • Successor of Felix Klein, founder of ICME (since 1968) and PME (with Fischbein in 1977) • Most important book: “Mathematics as an Educational Task” 1970; founder of the journal “Educational Studies in Mathematics” • Most important for him: looking for discontinuities in the learning process. Consequence: focus on case studies. • Excerpts from his last book “Revisiting Mathematics Education” 1991, Ch. 3.2.2: Educational Research 1905-1990 Prof. Bernd Zimmermann Jena Turun Yliopisto 2003

4. Leading ideas of Freudenthal concerning research in education • I would simply like the researcher, whatever his undertaking, to ask himself the question “what is the use of it?”, and then in a way as though he were one of the intended users himself. • The greater the pretention with which something is presented as research (tehdä ikään kuin olisi tutkimus), the less satisfactorily it comes across as an answer to the question “what is the use of it?” Prof. Bernd Zimmermann Jena Turun Yliopisto 2003

5. Relation researcher-user • Mediation (välitys) between researcher and user • Mediation means interpretation (selittää) • Symmetry between researcher and user (“action research”) • “Trail-blazing (valaista tilanne/matkatie) should start in the classroom” Prof. Bernd Zimmermann Jena Turun Yliopisto 2003

6. Decision makers, policy agents and legislators and ed. research When asked, they will commission groups of researchers to write reports, which … are no more than sources of vocabulary; this helps them to pretend that their final advice … is not merely a product of common sense (cf. standards, quality of instruction, …). Prof. Bernd Zimmermann Jena Turun Yliopisto 2003

7. Freudenthal on research methods • Learning mathematics (a subject) means: doing mathematics(the subject)/problem solvingfirst (methods are implicitly involved like for example grammar in language learning!), reflection on methods later.  • Learning to do research in education: measuring first (course on methodology) and trying to explain later?? Validity of methods?? Prof. Bernd Zimmermann Jena Turun Yliopisto 2003

8. What can we learn from Freudenthal? • Why are we doing research? • What is our question? • What is the use of it? • To what extent our method fits to our question? Prof. Bernd Zimmermann Jena Turun Yliopisto 2003

9. relevance/originality Research Process: step 1 Prof. Bernd Zimmermann Jena Turun Yliopisto 2003

10. Research paradigms/communities for didactics of a subject • Subject oriented: to know one’s subject and explain it well (mathematician, biologist, …) • Empiricism/positivism (more quantitative oriented; “counting facts”) • Constructivist/interpretative/ phenomenological (more qualitative oriented; “understanding” situations) • Pragmatic: domination of traditions of teaching and “transmission of the subject” • Critical paradigm: improve social situation • Humanistic paradigm: human beings and their welfare are in the center of interest Prof. Bernd Zimmermann Jena Turun Yliopisto 2003

11. Research methods • Quantitative(e. g. questionnaires, structured interviews and observations; very often pretention of testing of hypotheses) • Esp. experimental(e. g. treatment/control group; comparative studies) • Qualitative(e. g. clinicalinterviews and observations, case studies, action research, ethnographic studies; exploratory studies; generation of hypotheses) • Meta-studies(e. g. analyzing a set of studies, trend analyses, historiographic studies) Prof. Bernd Zimmermann Jena Turun Yliopisto 2003

12. research question Criteria for Scientific Quality in Behavioral Sciences(cf. Kilpatrick; Sierpinska; 1992) • Relevance • Originality • Validity (methods) • Objectivity • Rigor and precision • Predictability • Reproducibility • Relatedness Prof. Bernd Zimmermann Jena Turun Yliopisto 2003

13. Relevance and originality • Fundamental for quality of research • What is the use of it? • To improve/parantaa(e.g. problem solving abilities, attitudes, …) • To prove/todistaa(e.g. the possible gain of computers under specific conditions) • To disprove/todistaa vääräksi(e. g. Erlwanger study) • To understand better (e. g. learning - teaching processes) Prof. Bernd Zimmermann Jena Turun Yliopisto 2003

14. Validity • Validity of research methods • Example: content-validity; e. g. problems from TIMSS, PISA (seal-problem)? • Validity of interpretation (e.g. repetition of TIMSS)? Prof. Bernd Zimmermann Jena Turun Yliopisto 2003

15. Objectivity • intersubjectivity • as objective as possible/useful Prof. Bernd Zimmermann Jena Turun Yliopisto 2003

16. Rigor and precision • As clear as possible describing goals, framework (making hidden assumptions explicit), methods, procedure, outcomes and interpretations • Reliability: of a test (“precision” of an outcome in case of repetition) • Often: the more rigor, the less relevance and vice versa (cf. Einstein)! Prof. Bernd Zimmermann Jena Turun Yliopisto 2003

17. Most important: Relevance and usefulness • Are we convinced? • Are our friends convinced? • Are our “opponents” convinced? (cf. Mason/Burton/Stacy: “Thinking mathematically” 1982) Prof. Bernd Zimmermann Jena Turun Yliopisto 2003

18. Research process/report: step 2 • Formulation of goals, questions, hypotheses • Theoretical framework (including analysis of relevant literature) • Reformulation/specification of the goals • Designing the (empirical part of the) study • Carrying out the study • Collecting the data • Discussion of results • Limits and constraints of the study • Future research Prof. Bernd Zimmermann Jena Turun Yliopisto 2003

19. References General without relation to a specific subject: • Kerlinger F.:. Foundations of Behavioral Research, Third Edition. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers, Orlando, Florida, 1986. General with relation to one subject: • Freudenthal, Hans: Revisiting Mathematics Education. The China Lectures. Kluwer, Dordrecht-Boston-London 1991. • Kilpatrick; J.: Beyond Face Value: Assessing Research in Mathematics Education Sierpinska, Anna: Criteria for Scientific Quality and Relevance in the Didactics of Mathematics From: Criteria for Scientific Quality and Relevance in the Didactics of Mathematics. Danish Research Council for the Humanities. Report from symposium held in Gilleleje Denmark from April 27 to May 2 1992 Editors: Gunhild Nissen and Morten Blomhøj • Grouws, D. A.: Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning. NCTM 1992. • Romberg: Perspectives on Scholarship and Research Methods; p. 51 ff; in Grouws: Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning Prof. Bernd Zimmermann Jena Turun Yliopisto 2003