Addressing the Barriers to Effective Pain Management and Issues of Opioid Misuse and Abuse

1. Addressing the Barriers to Effective Pain Management andIssues of Opioid Misuse and Abuse Maureen F. Cooney, DNP, FNP  Adjunct Faculty, Family Nurse Practitioner Program Lienhard School of Nursing Pace University Pleasantville, New York  Instructor of Anesthesiology New York Medical College  Nurse Practitioner/Clinical Nurse Specialist Westchester Medical Center Valhalla, New York Sponsored by The France FoundationSupported by an educational grant from King Pharmaceuticals

2. Faculty Disclosure It is the policy of The France Foundation to ensure balance, independence, objectivity, and scientific rigor in all its sponsored educational activities. All faculty, activity planners, content reviewers, and staff participating in this activity will disclose to the participants any significant financial interest or other relationship with manufacturer(s) of any commercial product(s)/device(s) and/or provider(s) of commercial services included in this educational activity. The intent of this disclosure is not to prevent a person with a relevant financial or other relationship from participating in the activity, but rather to provide participants with information on which they can base their own judgments. The France Foundation has identified and resolved any and all conflicts of interest prior to the release of this activity. The following faculty have indicated they have relationships with industry to disclose relative to the content of this CME activity: • Maureen Cooney, DNP, FNP, has received honoraria from GlaxoSmithKline and Cephalon

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4. Educational Learning Objectives • Identify the negative impact of persistent pain on health and quality of life, methods to assess pain levels, appropriate use of opioid medications, and documentation required for compliance with regulatory policies • Integrate appropriate risk assessment strategies for patient abuse, misuse, and diversion of opioids into an overall management approach for acute and chronic pain • Describe the specific elements of new abuse deterrent technologies associated with opioid therapy, and assess their implications for clinical practice

5. Prevalence of Recurrent and Persistent Pain in the US • 1 in 4 Americans suffer from recurrent pain (day-long bout of pain/month) • 1 in 10 Americans report having persistent pain of at least one year’s duration • 1 in 5 individuals over the age of 65 report pain persisting for more than 24 hours in the preceding month • – 6 in 10 report pain persisting > 1 year • 2 out of 3 US armed forces veterans report having persistent pain attributable to military service • – 1 in 10 take prescription medicine to manage pain American Pain Foundation. http://www.painfoundation.org. Accessed March 2010.

6. Multiple Types of Pain • A. Nociceptive • B. Inflammatory • Neuropathic • Noninflammatory/ • Nonneuropathic Noxious Peripheral Stimuli Inflammation Multiple Mechanisms Peripheral Nerve Damage No Known Tissue or Nerve Damage Abnormal Central Processing • Patients may experience multiple pain states simultaneously1 Adapted from Woolf CJ. Ann Intern Med. 2004;140:441-451. 1. Chong MS, Bajwa ZH. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2003;25:S4-S11.

7. Long-Term Consequences of Acute Pain: Potential for Progression to Chronic Pain Structural Remodeling Sensitization CNS Neuroplasticity Hyperactivity Peripheral Nociceptive Fibers Peripheral Nociceptive Fibers Sustained currents Transient Activation Sustained Activation Surgeryorinjurycausesinflammation CHRONIC PAIN ACUTE PAIN Woolf CJ, et al. Ann Intern Med. 2004;140:441-451; Petersen-Felix S, et al. Swiss Med Weekly. 2002;132:273-278; Woolf CJ. Nature.1983;306:686-688; Woolf CJ, et al. Nature. 1992;355:75-78.

8. Neuroplasticity in Pain Processing 100 Hyperalgesia3 heightened sense of pain to noxious stimuli 80 60 Injury Normal Response To Painful Stimulus Pain Sensation Allodynia pain resulting from normally painless stimuli 40 20 0 innocuous noxious Stimulus Intensity • Woolf CJ, Salter MW. Science. 2000;288:1765-1768. • Basbaum AI, Jessell TM. The perception of pain. In: Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, et al. eds. Principles of Neural Science. 4th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2000:479. • Cervero F, Laird JMA. Pain. 1996;68:13-23.

9. Inadequately treated acute pain more likely to become chronic pain • Significant number of postop patients develop chronic pain (Perkins, FM, Kehler, H Anesthesiology, 2000, 93: 1123-1133) • Inguinal hernia 4-40% • Mastectomy 20-49% • Thoracotomy up to 67% • Phantom limb up to 90% • Severity of acute pain predicts chronic pain, although causal relationship not fully established (Macine WA, British Journal of Anesthesia, 2001, 87, 88-98)

10. Vicious Cycle of Uncontrolled Pain Avoidance Behaviors Decreased Mobility Pain Social Limitations Altered Functional Status Diminished Self- Efficacy

11. Breaking the Chain of Pain Transmission 5-HT = serotonin; NE = norepinephrine; TCA = tricyclic antidepressant 1. Gottschalk A, Smith DS. Am Fam Physician. 2001;63:1979-1984; 2. Iyengar S, et al. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2004;311:576-584; 3. Morgan V, et al. Gut. 2005;54:601-607; 4. Reimann W, et al. Anesth Analg. 1999;88:141-145. Vanegas H, Schaible HG. Prog Neurobiol. 2001;64:327-363; 6. Malmberg AB, Yaksh TL. JPharmacol Exp Ther. 1992;263:136-146; 7. Stein C, et al. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1989;248:1269-1275.

12. Multimodal Treatment Pharmacotherapy Opioids, nonopioids, adjuvant analgesics Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Assistive devices, electrotherapy Interventional Approaches Injections, neurostimulation Strategies for Pain and Associated Disability Complementary and Alternative Medicine Massage, supplements Psychological Support Psychotherapy, group support Lifestyle Change Exercise, weight loss Fine PG, et al. J Support Oncol. 2004;2(suppl 4):5-22. Portenoy RK, et al. In: Lowinson JH, et al, eds. Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2005:863-903.

13. Components of Chronic Pain BTP 10 8 6 Pain Level 4 Baseline Pain 2 0 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 10 11 10 11 6 PM 5 AM 6 AM 12 PM 12 AM Time, h • Chronic pain • Baseline persistent pain • Breakthrough pain (BTP) • Each component of chronic pain needs to be independently assessed and managed Portenoy RK, et al. Pain. 1999;81:129-134; Svendsen K, et al. Eur J Pain. 2005;9:195-206.

14. Positioning Opioid Therapyfor Chronic Pain Chronic non-cancer pain: evolving perspective Consider for all patients with severe chronic pain, but weigh the influences What is conventional practice? Are there reasonable alternatives? What is the risk of adverse events? Is the patient likely to be a responsible drug-taker? Fine PG, Portenoy RK. Clinical Guide to Opioid Analgesia, 2nd edition, 2007. Jovey RD, et al. Pain Res Manag. 2003;8(Suppl A):3A-28A. Eisenberg E, et al. JAMA. 2005;293:3043-3052. Gilron I, et al. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:1324-1334.

15. Chronic Opioid Therapy Guidelines and Treatment Principles Patient Selection Patient Selection and Risk Stratification (1.1-1.3) Alternatives to Opioid Therapy Use of Psycho-therapeutic Cointerventions (9.1) Initial Patient Assessment Informed Consent and Opioid Management Plans (2.1-2.2) High-Risk Patients (6.1-6.2) Comprehensive Pain Management Plan Driving and Work Safety (10.1) Identifying a Medical Home* and When to Obtain Consultation (11.1-11.2) Chou R, et al. J Pain. 2009;10:113-130. *Clinician accepting primary responsibility for a patient’s overall medical care.

16. Chronic Opioid Therapy Guidelines and Treatment Principles (cont) Trial of Opioid Therapy Initiation and Titration of Chronic Opioid Therapy (3.1-3.2) Methadone (4.1) Opioids and Pregnancy (13.1) Patient Reassessment Monitoring (5.1-5.3) Dose Escalations, High-Dose Opioid Therapy, Opioid Rotation, Indications for Discontinuation of Therapy (7.1-7.4) Opioid Policies (14.1) Continue Opioid Therapy Monitoring (5.1-5.3) Breakthrough Pain (12.1) Implement Exit Strategy Opioid-Related Adverse Effects (8.1) Chou R, et al. J Pain. 2009;10:113-130. *Clinician accepting primary responsibility for a patient’s overall medical care.

17. Opioid Formulations

18. Domains for Pain Management Outcome: The 4 A’s Analgesia Activitiesof Daily Living AdverseEvents AberrantDrug-Taking Behaviors Passik SD, Weinreb HJ. Adv Ther. 2000;17:70-83. Passik SD, et al. Clin Ther. 2004;26:552-561.

19. Model Policy for the Use of Controlled Substances for the Treatment of Pain Federation of State Medical Boards House of Delegates, May 2004. http://fsmb.org. Accessed March 2010. Federation of State Medical Boards of the United States, Inc

20. FSMB Model PolicyBasic Tenets • Pain management is important and integral to the practice of medicine • Use of opioids may be necessary for pain relief • Use of opioids for other than a legitimate medical purpose poses a threat to the individual and society • Physicians have a responsibility to minimize the potential for abuse and diversion • Physicians may deviate from the recommended treatment steps based on good cause • Not meant to constrain or dictate medical decision-making FSMB, Federation of State Medical Boards

21. New Illicit Drug Use United States, 2006 2,500 2,150 2,063 2,000 1,500 1,112 New Users (thousands) 977 1,000 860 845 783 500 267 264 91 69 0 Marijuana Cocaine Stimulants Sedatives Heroin Pain Relievers* Tranquilizers Ecstasy Inhalants LSD† PCP† *533,000 new nonmedical users of oxycodone aged ≥ 12 years. Past year initiates for specific illicit drugs among people aged ≥ 12 years.†LSD, lysergic acid diethylamide; PCP, phencyclidine. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies. 2006 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Department of Health and Human Services Publication No. SMA 07-4293; 2007.

24. Definition of Terms • Use of a medication (for a medical purpose) other than as directed or as indicated, whether willful or unintentional, and whether harm results or not Misuse • Any use of an illegal drug • The intentional self administration of a medication for a nonmedical purpose such as altering one’s state of consciousness, eg, getting high Abuse Diversion • The intentional removal of a medication from legitimate and dispensing channels • A primary, chronic, neurobiological disease, with genetic, psychosocial, and environmental factors influencing its development and manifestations • Behavioral characteristics include one or more of the following: impaired control over drug use, compulsive use, continued use despite harm, craving Addiction • Syndrome of abnormal behavior resulting from undertreatment of pain that is misidentified by the clinician as inappropriate drug-seeking behavior • Behavior ceases when adequate pain relief is provided • Not a diagnosis; rather, a description of the clinical intention Pseudoaddiction Katz NP, et al. Clin J Pain. 2007;23:648-660.

25. Prevalence of Misuse, Abuse, and Addiction Misuse 40% Abuse: 20% Total PainPopulation Addiction: 2% to 5% Webster LR, Webster RM. Pain Med. 2005;6(6):432-442.

26. Who Misuses/Abuses Opioids and Why? • Nonmedical • Use • Recreational abusers • Patients with disease of addiction • Medical Use • Pain patients seeking more pain relief • Pain patients escaping emotional pain

27. Rx Opioid Users Are Heterogeneous “Self-Treaters” “Recreational users” “Adherent” “Chemical copers” “Substance abusers” “Substance abusers” “Addicted” (SUD) “Addicted” (SUD) Nonmedical Users Pain Patients Passik SD, Kirsch KL. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2008;16(5):400-404.

28. Risk Factors for Aberrant Behaviors/Harm Biological Psychiatric Social • Age ≤ 45 years • Gender • Family history of prescription drug or alcohol abuse • Cigarette smoking • Substance use disorder • Preadolescent sexual abuse (in women) • Major psychiatric disorder (eg, personality disorder, anxiety or depressive disorder, bipolar disorder) • Prior legal problems • History of motor vehicle accidents • Poor family support • Involvement in a problematic subculture Katz NP, et al. Clin J Pain. 2007;23:103-118; Manchikanti L, et al. J Opioid Manag. 2007;3:89-100. Webster LR, Webster RM. Pain Med. 2005;6:432-442.

29. Stratify Risk Low Risk Moderate Risk High Risk • No past/current history of substance abuse • Noncontributory family history of substance abuse • No major or untreated psychological disorder • History of treated substance abuse • Significant family history of substance abuse • Past/comorbid psychological disorder • Active substance abuse • Active addiction • Major untreated psychological disorder • Significant risk to self and practitioner Webster LR, Webster RM. Pain Med. 2005;6:432-442.

30. 10 Principles of Universal Precautions • Diagnosis with appropriate differential • Psychological assessment including risk of addictive disorders • Informed consent (verbal or written/signed) • Treatment agreement (verbal or written/signed) • Pre-/post-intervention assessment of pain level and function • Appropriate trial of opioid therapy adjunctive medication • Reassessment of pain score and level of function • Regularly assess the “Four A’s” of pain medicine: Analgesia, Activity, Adverse Reactions, and Aberrant Behavior • Periodically review pain and comorbidity diagnoses, including addictive disorders • Documentation Gourlay DL, Heit HA. Pain Med. 2009;10 Suppl 2:S115-123. Gourlay DL, et al. Pain Med. 2005;6(2):107-112.

31. Initial Visits • Initial comprehensive evaluation • Risk assessment • Prescription monitoring assessment • Urine drug test • Opioid treatment agreement • Opioid consent form • Patient education

32. McGill Short Form Pain Questionnaire Results of Short and Long Form tests correlate well for postsurgical pain r = 0.67 - 0.86, P 0.002 Melzack R. Pain. 1987;30:191-197.

33. Principles of Responsible Opioid Prescribing • Patient Evaluation • Pain assessment and history • Directed physical exam • Review of diagnostic studies • Analgesic and other medication history • Personal history of illicit drug use or substance abuse • Personal history of psychiatric issues • Family history of substance abuse/psychiatric problems • Assessment of comorbidities • Accurate record keeping Fine PG, Portenoy RK. Clinical Guide to Opioid Analgesia, 2nd edition, 2007.

34. Principles of Responsible Opioid Prescribing Treatment Plan • I have resolved key points before initiating opioid therapy • Diagnosis established and opioid treatment plan developed • Established level of risk • I can treat this patient alone/I need to enlist other consultants to co-manage this patient (pain or addiction specialists) • I have considered nonopioid modalities • Pain rehabilitation program • Behavioral strategies • Non-invasive and interventional techniques

35. Principles of Responsible Opioid Prescribing Treatment Plan (cont) • Drug selection, route of administration, dosing/dose titration • Managing adverse effects of opioid therapy • Assessing outcomes • Written agreements in place outlining patient expectations/responsibilities • Consultation as needed • Periodic review of treatment efficacy, side effects, aberrant drug-taking behaviors

36. Algorithm for theManagement of Chronic Pain Pain frequency Frequency flares of constant disturbing pain Infrequent flares < 4 days per week Occupational therapy Physical therapy Analgesics Additional features Physical therapy Psychology Psychology Ineffective or require excessive doses Relaxation Stress management Cognitive restructuring Relaxation Stress management Flare management: oscillatory movements, distraction techniques, trigger point massage Neuropathic pain, burning quality, nerve injury, neuralgia Structural pathology with disability and or overuse of analgesics Reconditioning Stretching exercises Body mechanics Work simplification Pacing skills Short-acting opioids First line Adjunctive Antidepressants: TCA, SSRI Antiepileptics: gabapentin, lamotrigine Capsaicin cream Mexiletine Long-acting opioids Long-acting opioids TCA = tricyclic antidepressants: SSRI = selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors Marcus DA. Am Fam Physician. 2000;61(5):1331-1338.

37. Medical Records • Maintain accurate, complete, and current records • Medical Hx & PE • Diagnostic, therapeutic, lab results • Evaluations/consultations • Treatment objectives • Discussion of risks/benefits • Tx and medications • Instructions/agreements • Periodic reviews • Discussions with and about patients Fishman SM. Pain Med. 2006;7:360-362. Federation of State Medical Boards of the United States, Inc. Model Policy for the Use of Controlled Substances for the Treatment of Pain. 2004.

38. Considerations • What is conventional practice for this type of pain or pain patient? • Is there an alternative therapy that is likely to have an equivalent or better therapeutic index for pain control, functional restoration, and improvement in quality of life? • Does the patient have medical problems that may increase the risk of opioid-related adverse effects? • Is the patient likely to manage the opioid therapy responsibly? • Who can I treat without help? • Who would I be able to treat with the assistance of a specialist? • Who should I not treat, but rather refer, if opioid therapy is a consideration? Fine PG, Portenoy RK. Clinical Guide to Opioid Analgesia. Vendome Group, New York, 2007.

39. Differential Diagnosis of Aberrant Drug-Taking Attitudes and Behavior • Addiction (out-of-control, compulsive drug use) • Pseudoaddiction (inadequate analgesia) • Other psychiatric diagnosis • Organic mental syndrome (confused, stereotyped drug-taking) • Personality disorder (impulsive, entitled, chemical-coping behavior) • Chemical coping (drug overly central) • Depression/anxiety/situational stressors (self-medication) • Criminal intent (diversion) Passik SD, Kirsh KL. Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2004;8:289-294.

40. Identifying Who Is at Risk for Opioid Abuse and Diversion Predictive tools Aberrant behaviors Urine drug testing Prescription monitoring programs Severity and duration of pain Pharmacist communication Family and friends Patients

41. Signs of Potential Abuse and Diversion However, emergencies happen: not every person in a hurry is an abuser/diverter Request appointment toward end-of-office hours Arrive without appointment Telephone/arrive after office hours when staff are anxious to leave Reluctant to have thorough physical exam, diagnostic tests, or referrals Fail to keep appointments Unwilling to provide past medical records or names of HCPs Unusual stories Drug Enforcement Administration. Don't be Scammed by a Drug Abuser. 1999. Cole BE. Fam Pract Manage. 2001;8:37-41.

42. Risk Assessment Tools • Opioid Risk Tool (ORT) • Predict which patients might develop aberrant behavior when prescribed opioids for chronic pain • Screener and Opioid Assessment for Patients with Pain-Revised (SOAPP-R) • Predict aberrant medication-related behaviors in patients with chronic pain considered for long-term opioid therapy • Empirically-derived, 24-item self-report questionnaire • Reliable and valid • Less susceptible to overt deception than past version • Scoring:  18 identifies 90% of high-risk patients Passik SD, Squire P. Pain Med. 2009;10 Suppl 2:S101-14. Butler SF, et al. J Pain. 2008;9:360-372.

43. ORT Validation • Exhibits high degree of sensitivity and specificity • 94% of low-risk patients did not display an aberrant behavior • 91% of high-risk patients did display an aberrant behavior N = 185 ADD, attention deficit disorder; OCD, obsessive-compulsive disorder. Webster LR, Webster RM. Pain Med. 2005;6:432-442.

44. SOAPP Name:_________________ Date:___________ The following survey is given to all patients who are on or being considered for opioids for their pain. Please answer each question as honestly as possible. This information is for our records and will remain confidential. Your answers will not determine your treatment. Thank you. Please answer the questions below using the following scale: 0 = Never, 1 = Seldom, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Very Often 1. How often do you have mood swings? 2. How often do you smoke a cigarette within an hour after you wake up? 3. How often have you taken medication other than the way that it was prescribed? 4. How often have you used illegal drugs (for example, marijuana, cocaine, etc.) in the past five years? 5. How often in your lifetime have you had legal problems or been arrested? Please include any additional information you wish about the above answers. Thank you Chris Jackson 9/16/09 Mr. Jackson’s Score = 3 To score the SOAPP, add ratings of all questions. A score of 4 or higher is considered positive О 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 О 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4

45. The Role of UDT UDT in clinical practice may Provide objective documentation of compliance with treatment plan by detecting presence of a particular drug or its metabolites Assist in recognition of addiction or drug misuse if results abnormal Results are only as reliable as testing laboratory’s ability to detect substance in question Heit HA, Gourlay DL. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2004;27:260-267.Dove B, Webster LR. Avoiding Opioid Abuse while Managing Pain: a Guide for Practitioners. North Branch, MN: Sunrise River Press; 2007.

46. Positive and Negative Urine Toxicology Results • Positive forensic testing • Legally prescribed medications • Over-the-counter medications • Illicit drugs or unprescribed medications • Substances that produce the same metabolite as that of a prescribed or illegal substance • Errors in laboratory analysis • Negative compliance testing • Medication bingeing • Diversion • Insufficient test sensitivity • Failure of laboratory to test for desired substances Heit HA, Gourlay DL. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2004;27:260-267.

47. Detection Times of Common Drugs of Misuse Gourlay DL, Heit HA. Pain Med. 2009;10 Suppl 2:S115-123.

48. Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategies Position of the FDA • The current strategies for intervening with [the problem of prescription opioid addiction, misuse, abuse, overdose and death] are inadequate • New authorities granted under FDAAA: [FDA] will now be implementing Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategies (REMS) for a number of opioid products • [FDA expects] all companies marketing these products to [cooperate] to get this done expeditiously • If not, [FDA] cannot guarantee that these products will remain on the market Rappaport BA. REMS for Opioid Analgesics: How Did We Get Here? Where are We Going? FDA meeting of manufacturers of ER opioids, FDA White Oak Campus, Silver Spring, MD. March 3, 2009.

49. States with PMPs Operational PMP:32 Start-up phase: 6 In legislative process: 11 No action: 1 Office of Diversion Control. http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/faq/rx_monitor.htm#1. Accessed March 2010.

50. NYS Prescription Monitoring Program (PMP): TRIGGERS: 2 Provider, 2 Pharmacies • Must have HPN account: https://commerce.health.state.ny.us/pub