The English Utopias I.

The English Utopias I. Early Modern Fantasies Definitions, Genres,Scope of Study

Etymology, meanings These things will be, and must be; but how they shall be least hurtful, how least enticing, herein consists the grave and governing wisdom of a State. To sequester out of the world into Atlantick and Eutopian polities which never can be drawn into use, will not mend our condition; but to ordain wisely as in this world of evil, in the middleof whichGod has placed us unavoidably.

Definitions A. L. MORTON: “I have not felt myself too strictly bound by my definition of Utopia as an imaginary country described in a work of fiction with the object of criticising existing society. Some such definition was necessary to keep my book within reasonable bounds, and it excludes from consideration both attempts to found Utopian communities and works in which the element of fiction is absent.” The English Utopia, SevenSeasBooks, Berlin: 1968 [1952], p. 12. 1952

Definitions MANUEL and MANUEL: “eschewanydefinition of utopia” (KUMAR) “Utopia thus became laden with meanings as it moved through time: a literarygenre, a constitution for a perfectly restructured polity, a state of mind, thereligious or scientific foundations of a universal republic.” “Utopia could alwaysbe used either positively or pejoratively. (…) In English a utopian became a person who inhabits autopia or one who would like to be in a utopia or has a utopian cast oftemperament.Some men were utopographers, a seventeenth-century word for thewriters or inventors of utopias. The researcher into the utopian propensity ofmankind, though he is one of a long line going back to Aristotle, has no particularname, and must rest content with the plain appellation historian, thoughhis subject has been dubbed utopology by a recent innovator.” “The origin of the utopian propensity is, inan absolute sense, not knowable; its application and incorporation in givenutopian configurations or constellations are.These become the main subject of ourinquiry. ” Frank E. Manuel and Fritzie P. Manuel: UtopianThoughtinthe Western World, Belknapp: Cambridge, MA: 1997 [1979],p. 2; 13. CHRONOLOGICAL LIST COMMON PRINCIPLE, BINARIES 1979

Definitions J. C. DAVIS: “The initialpremise of thisbook is that a seriousstudy of thepoliticalthoughtofearly modern utopias is warranted and insomerespectsoverdue.” “Bututopianthoughtitself is not a traditioninthesenseoutlinedabove. (…) Itspractitionersarenotalwaysaware of thoseutopianwriterswhohaveprecededthem. Infactsuchawareness is veryrareindeed. Inthatrespect a greaternumber of utopianwritershavebeenunselfconscious.” “Utopianwriting is nota tradition of thought (…) Ratherit is a modeortype of idealsociety, and whatutopianwritershaveincommon is notcommonmembership of a traditionbuttheirsubjectiontoacommonmode.” “Is utopia a paradigm? No. For a paradigm is partlydefinedbyitscapacityforstructuralflexibility and transformation, itscapacitytosustain, directandfinallysuccumbtoevolvingtradition. Bututopiaas a structure of thought is relativelyunchanging. It is itssameness, itsconstancywhich must be emphasised. The boldclaimmight be made thatutopiaasoutlined here has barelychangedinthelastfour and a halfcenturies.” 1981 Utopia and the ideal society: a study of English utopian writing 1516-1700, Cambridge, CUP: 1981, Introduction.

Definitions J. C. DAVIS – classification: • Land of Cockaygne • Arcadia • Perfectmoralcommonwealth • Millennium • Utopia • totality of thechangeenvisaged • closed-societynature • order/stability of thenew establishment IDEAL-SOCIETY LITERATURE 1981 Utopia and the ideal society: a study of English utopian writing 1516-1700, Cambridge, CUP: 1981, Introduction.

Definitions Krishan KUMAR: “Assooftenwithconceptsinthe human sciences, itseemsbestnottoinsistonsome ‘essentialist’ definition of utopiabuttolet a definitionemerge: byuse and contextshallweknowourutopias.” “A strictdefinition of utopiawouldserve no usefulpurpose; as Nietzsche says, ‘onlythatwhich has no historycan be defined.” Utopia and anti-utopia in modern times, Blackwell, Oxford: 1987,p. 26; 32. 1987

Definitions Gregory CLAEYS – Lyman Tower SARGENT: As a literary genre, utopia refers to works that describe an imaginary societyin some detail. Utopian thought construed more widely, however, is not restrictedto fiction and includes visionary, millenarian, and apocalyptic as wellas constitutional writings united by their willingness to envision a dramaticallydifferent form of society as either a social ideal-type or its negative inversion.Not all forms of imaginative literature and social and political thought, however,should be calledutopian. Utopianism- socialdreaming Utopia- a nonexistent society described in detail and normally located intime and space Eutopia or positive utopia- a utopia that the author intended a contemporaneousreader to view as considerably better than the society inwhichthereaderlived Dystopia or negative utopia - a utopia that the author intended a contemporaneousreader to view as considerably worse than the society inwhichthereaderlived Utopian satire- a utopia that the author intended a contemporaneousreader to view as a criticism of the existing society Anti-utopia - a utopia that the author intended a contemporaneous readerto view as a criticism of utopianism or of some particular eutopia Critical utopia - a utopia that the author intended a contemporaneousreader to view as better than contemporary society but with difficultproblems that the described society may or may not be able to solve,and which takes a critical view of the utopian genre 1999 Gregory Claeys – Lyman Tower Sargenteds.: The UtopiaReader,New York University Press, New York and London: 1999,Introduction, p. 2.

Definitions MORRIS-KROSS: • (near) perfect human condition, withoutconflict, attainableby a nation/society • theidealized subject must in the mind of its author be an improvedstate that not only could be but also should be implemented (no pipedreams) • the assumption of malleability of persons • representsa superioralternative to the present to those who would give credenceto it • must be dystopian in nature, that is, a criticism ofutopian ideas and schemes as unworkable in practice • must not represent mere escapism or the desire of agroup with like interests (such as artists or voyeurs) to associateonly with those of the same interests for their own enjoyment oredification 2009 James M. Morris – Andrea L. Kross: The A to Zof Utopianism, Scarecrow Press, Lanham-Toronto -Plymouth: 2009. (The A to Z Guide Series, No. 36.)

Summary • Traditions: • Golden Age • Arcadia • Isle of Blessed • Land of Cokaygne • Millennium • Carnivalism Interdisciplinarity: • Literature • History • IntellectualHistory • Sociology • ChurchHistory • Philosophy • Political Science

Golden Age Hesiod: Works and Days The gods who own Olympus as dwelling-place deathless, made first of mortals a Golden Race, (this was the time when Kronos in heaven dwelt) and they lived like gods and no sorrow of heart they felt. Nothing for toil or pitiful age they cared, but in strength of hand and foot still unimpaired they feasted gaily, undarkened by sufferings. They died as if falling asleep; and all good things were theirs, for the fruitful earth unstintingly bore unforced her plenty, and they, amid their store enjoyed their landed ease which nothing stirred loved by the gods and rich in many of herd.

Golden Age Fifth is the race that I call my own and abhor. O to die, or be later born, or born before! This is the Race of Iron. Dark is their plight. Toil and sorrow is theirs, and by night The anguish of death and the gods afflict them and kill, Though there’s yet a trifle of good amid manifold ill. Hesiod (eighth century B.C.)

Golden Age Ovid: Metamorphosis In the beginning was the Golden Age, when men of their own accord, withoutthreat of punishment, without laws, maintained good faith and did what wasright. There were no penalties to be afraid of, no bronze tablets were erected,carrying threats of legal action, no crowd of wrong-doers, anxious for mercy,trembled before the face of their judge: indeed, there were no judges, men livedsecurely without them. Never yet had any pine tree, cut down from its homeon the mountains been launched on ocean’s waves, to visit foreign lands: menknew only their own shores. Their cities were not yet surrounded by sheermoats; they had no straight brass trumpets, no coiling brass helmets and noswords. The peoples of the world, untroubled by any fears, enjoyed a leisurelyand peaceful existence, and had no use for soldiers. The earth itself, withoutcompulsion, untouched by the hoe, unfurrowed by any share, produced thingsspontaneously, and men were content with foods that grew without cultivation. Ovid (43 B.C.– A.D. 17)

Golden Age Vergil: FourthEclogue Next, when now the strength of years has made thee man, even the trader shallquit the sea, nor shall the ship of pine exchange wares; every land shall bear allfruits. The earth shall not feel the harrow, nor the vine the pruning-hook; thesturdy ploughman, too, shall now loose his oxen from the yoke. Wool shall nomore learn to counterfeit varied hues, but of himself the ram in the meadowsshall change his fleece, now to sweetly blushing purple, now to saffron yellow;of its own will shall scarlet clothe the grazing lamb. Vergil (70-19 B.C.)

Islandsof theBlest Horace: Epode 16 let us seek the fields, the happy fields and the islands of the blest, where the earth is not plowed, but yearly it yields the grain, and the vine is not trimmed, but forever flourishes, and the branch of the olive never fails to blossom, and the black fig, ungrafted, adorns its own tree, honey drips from the hollow oak, from the lofty hills the light-stepping spring comes splashing down. There the goats need no orders to come to the milking pails, and the flock returns gladly with swelling udders, and the bear does not growl as he circles the sheepfold at evening, and the earth does not swell up with vipers. Horace (65-8 B.C.)

Prester John The land of Prester John became one of the great myths of the late middleages. Many explorers setout to find it; many reported back that they had.Found or not, the basic characteristics of Prester John’s land remained roughlythe same. Prester John was the essence of the holy, Christian ruler, and theland he ruled was one where a trueChristian could lead a fully Christian life,somethingnotpossibleelsewhere. The Land of Prester John 21. Our land flows with honey and abounds with milk. In some parts of ourland, no poisons harm nor garrulous frogs croak, no scorpion is there nor serpentwinding through the grass. Poisonous beasts cannot live in that place norharm anyone. 22. In the country through one of our provinces flows a river called Ydonus.This river, flowing out of Paradise, winds through the whole province at variousspeeds and there are found in it natural jewels, emeralds, sapphires, carbuncles,topazes, onyx, beryls, amethysts, carnelians, and several other precious stones. 27. This grove is situated near the foot of Mount Olympus, whence a transparentspring arises, possessing every kind of taste. The flavor varies, however,each hour of the day and night, and lasts a three days journey, not far fromParadisefrom which Adam was expelled. 28. If anyone, even if he has fasted for three days, tastes of that spring, he willsuffer no weakness from that day on, and will always be as a man thirty twoyears old, however long he may live. Source: “The Letter of Prester John,” quoted in George Boas, Primitivism and RelatedIdeas in the Middle Ages (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1948),162.

Plato Plato: Republic - You will admit that the same education which makes a man a good guardianwill make a woman a good guardian; for their original nature is the same? -Yes. - I should like to ask you a question. - What is it? - Would you say that all men are equal in excellence, or is one man better thananother? - The latter. - And in the commonwealth which we were founding do you conceive theguardians who have been brought up on our model system to be more perfectmen, or the cobblers whose education has been cobbling? - What a ridiculous question! - You have answered me, I replied: Well, and may we not further say that ourguardians are the best of our citizens? - By far the best. - And will not their wives be the best women? - Yes, by far the best.

Plato - And can there be anything better for the interests of the State than that themen and women of a State should be as good as possible? - There can be nothing better. - And this is what the arts of music and gymnastic, when present in such manneras we have described, will accomplish? - Certainly. - Then we have made an enactment not only possible but in the highest degreebeneficial to the State? - True. - Then let the wives of our guardians strip, for their virtue will be their robe,and let them share in the toils of war and the defence of their country; only inthe distribution of labours the lighter are to be assigned to the women, who arethe weaker natures, but in other respects their duties are to be the same. And asfor the man who laughs at naked women exercising their bodies from the bestof motives, in his laughter he is plucking ‘A fruit of unripe wisdom,’ and hehimself is ignorant of what he is laughing at, or what he is about;—for that is,and ever will be, the best of sayings, That the useful is the noble and the hurtfulis the base. Plato (427? B.C.-347 B.C.)

Aristophanes Aristophanes: Ecclesiazusae Praxagora. The rule which I dare to enact and declare, is that all shall be equal,and equally share all wealth and enjoyments, nor longer endure that one shouldbe rich, and another be poor, that one should have acres, far-stretching andwide, and another not even enough to provide himself with a grave: that this athis call should have hundreds of servants, and that none at all. All this I intendto correct and amend:now all of all blessings shall freely partake, one life andone system for all men I make. Blepyrus. And how will you manage it? PR. First, I’ll provide that the silver, and land, and whatever beside each manshall possess, shall be common and free, one fund for the public; then out of itwe will feed and maintain you, like housekeepers true, dispensing, and sparing,and caring for you. … BL. But suppose he choose to retain it [hismoney], and nobody knows; rank perjurydoubtless; but what if it be?

Aristophanes PR. I agree. But now ’twill be useless; he’ll need it no more. BL. How mean you? PR. All pressure from want will be o’er. Now each will have all that a mancan desire, cakes, barley-loaves, chestnuts, abundant attire, wine, garlands andfish: then why should he wish the wealth he has gotten by fraud to retain? Ifyou know any reason, I hope you’ll explain. BL.’Tis those that have most of these goods, I believe, that are always theworst and the keenest to thieve. PR. I grant you, my friend, in the days that are past, in your old-fashionedsystem, abolished at last; but what he’s to gain, though his wealth heretain,when all things are common, I’d have you explain. BL. If a youth to a girl his devotion would show, he surely must woo her withpresents. PR. O no. All women and men will be common and free, no marriage orother restraint there will be. Aristophanes (448? B.C.-380 B.C.)

Apocalypse Revelation of St. John (King James Version) 21:1 And I saw a new heaven and a new earth: for the first heaven and the firstearth were passed away; and there was no more sea. 2 And I John saw the holy city, new Jerusalem, coming down from God outof heaven, prepared as a bride adorned for her husband. 3 And I heard a great voice out of heaven saying, Behold, the tabernacle ofGod is with men, and he will dwell with them, and they shall be his people, andGod himself shall be with them, and be their God. 4 And God shall wipe away all tears from their eyes; and there shall be nomore death, neither sorrow, nor crying, neither shall there be any more pain:for the former things are passed away.

Pieter Brueghel theElder: The Land ofCokaygne

Sources Quotes Gregory Claeys – Lyman Tower Sargenteds.: The UtopiaReader,New York University Press, New York and London: 1999,Introduction, p. 2. Painting http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pieter_Bruegel_d._%C3%84._037.jpg#filelinks

The English Utopias I.