MALACCA STRAITS

1. MALACCA STRAITS Name: Poon Tsz Ha, Wendy Fu, Vivian TF Tse

2. Presentation Outline • Background of the project • Methodology of the project • Data Analysis • Recommendations

3. Purpose • Demonstrate ERA – risk management as a viable framework for managing land- & sea-based sources of marine pollution in subregional sea areas • Packaging the approach, methods & experience for the similar environmental management in E Asian region

4. MALACCA STRAITS Background Information

5. Unique ecological system • High productivity & diversity • Rich mix of fauna & flora • Intricate hydrodynamics • Complex interactions within & between water body & land-based activities

6. Geography • Natural channel between Indian & Pacific Ocean • Bounded by 3 littoral States • 2nd busiest shipping lane in the world (300 vessels/day) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Malacca

7. Geography • Euryhaline condition • Rich nutrient level • Shelter from strong currents & wave action • High & uniform temperature • Adequate tidal flushing • High biological productivity & diversity • Rich mix of fauna and flora from Indian & Pacific Ocean

8. Natural biological resources • Mangrove: 80% at Indonesian side • Seagrass bed: patchy and abundant • Nursery grounds for many fish species • Shows relationship between availability of habitats, fish stocks & sustainable yield • Corals: patchy but not very abundant

9. Natural biological resources • Exploited along both coasts of the Strait • Fisheries for demersal & pelagic species: NW half of the Strait • Mangrove removal for timber & aquaculture : entire length • Extensive aquaculture: cause potential problem to environment through release of organic waste & chemicals

10. Population & Employment • Indonesia: 11m; predominant on agriculture & fisheries, derivative industries based on natural resources • Malaysia: 10m; mix of agriculture, fisheries, heavy & light manufacturing industries • Singapore: 3m; manufacturing & commercial activities

11. River system • Similar numbers of river catchments on Indonesian & Malaysian coasts • Similar amount of rainfall  Similar volume (90million m3)of outflows & runoffs from both coasts (presumption)

12. Sewage facilities & Quality of inputs

13. Impacts to the Strait • Increase of total suspended solids in the water column & sedimentation • Mangrove removal (esp. NW half of Strait)  increase erosion • River load • Agricultural runoff • Aquaculture   O2 depletion, light attenuation & physical cover  impacts on mangroves, seagrass beds & corals

14. Impacts to the Strait • Volume: 1012 m3 • Considerable dilution & removal of contaminant loads by flushing • Dominant surface movement: SE to NW

15. Temperature and its impacts • Constant high temperature (26 – 30。C) • Exposure side:  rate of biodegradation  contaminants • Effect side:  rate of contaminant High level of metabolism (Ecotoxicological effect)

16. Rainfall and its impacts • High intensity but Short duration • Considerable contamination of dissolved and particulate materials from storm water runoff • Reduce in salinity  Osmotic stress in marine species   contaminant exposure • Reduce in salinity  Alter bioavailability of many contaminant (e.g.  Cd   fraction of dissolved metal exits as free ions)

17. MALACCA STRAITS Methodology

18. Target • Human health • Fish / seafood consumption • Contamination of fish / seafood by metals, pesticides & hydrocarbon • Habitat • Mangroves, peat swamps, seagrass beds, coral reefs, soft-bottom habitats • Species • Commercial & non-commercial marine species

19. Addressing the questions • Evidence for problems with human health, habitats & species (incl. commercial fish stocks) • Problems caused to human health, habitats & species by conditions exist now or in the future

20. Identify assessment & measurement Endpoint • Risk = f(H)(E) Where: H = Potential harm E = Likelihood of exposure to potential harm

21. 2 stages of risk assessment • Initial risk assessment • Refine risk assessment

22. Initial risk assessment • Screening mechanism: identify priority environmental concern on a Strait-wide basis, related data gaps & uncertainties Objective: • Utilize available information on sources, exposure & effect of land- & sea-based activities, and pollution derived therefrom on living & non-living resources

23. Program outline for initial risk assessment • Preparation of draft report • Major polluting sources & activities, and their effects on living & non-living environment • Delineation of the significant indicators of ecological, human health & social risk from pollutive land- & sea-based activities • Spatial & temporal scales of assessment

24. Program outline for initial risk assessment 1. Preparation of draft report (cont) • Interaction between land- & sea-based activities and interactions with living & non-living resources in & along the Straits • Combine effects of multiple & diverse stress on ecology • Systematic effect of a catastrophic event, e.g. oil / dangerous chemicals spillage by shipping accident

25. Program outline for initial risk assessment 2. Identify data gaps & uncertainties that need comprehensive risk characterization 3. Formulation of action plan for comprehensive risk assessment Utilize available expertise & resources to develop risk management program for the subregion

26. Refine risk assessment • The Strait as a whole • The Strait as a single compartment and estimate a single average exposure concentration for the entire Strait) • Selected contaminants, risk to local areas within the Strait • Local exposure concentration in the vicinity of specific human activities or natural resources

27. Refine risk assessment • Complete refined risk assessment of land- & sea-based sources of pollution & their effects on living & non-living resources • Using results of initial risk assessment & updated information from the 3 littoral states to produce a comprehensive document on ERA

28. Program outline for refined risk assessment 1. Review & analyze available data provided, update and/or verify the methodologies, conclusions & recommendation of initial risk assessment 2. Model development & demonstration of series of scenarios. Analysis of scenarios 3. Test techniques for improving uncertainty analyses and report the results

29. Others • Uncertainty assessment • Qualitative & quantitative method • Society risk • Environmental degradation & its impact to the economy • Risk-benefit analysis • Prioritize risk assessment in the society, as a key in risk management

30. Consideration • Relation between potential causes of problems for human health and the environment • Consequences in the Strait • Analysis of risk pathways: high economic importance, incl. social, national, governmental commercial interests

31. Consideration • Sources of hazards related to economic • Knock-on effects to economy by pollution • Influence judgment about priorities for action  Direct risk assessment  Weigh benefits to human health and the environment with costs to economy Influence management actions taken

32. MALACCA STRAITS Risk Assessment

33. Approaches of risk assessment • Retrospective risk assessment • Prospective risk assessment

34. Retrospective risk assessment

35. Key ingredients • Identifying targets and endpoints precisely • Identifying significant adverse changes • Evidences to show the problems Identifying possible causes of the changes • Identifying possible consequences of the changes for ecosystems and human welfare

36. Key ingredients In this paper: • Evidences of decline on the Straits • Habitats • Biodiversity • Attributed causes • Based on expert judgment and weight of evidence rather than experimental sciences • Possible consequences

37. Habitat loss and consequences

38. Habitats - Mangroves • Evidences of decline • Sumatra (Indonesia): loss 24% of mangrove coverage in 7 years (1987-1993) • Malaysia: loss 17% of mangrove coverage in 2 decades (1965-1985) • Singapore: loss approximately 81% of mangrove coverage in the last 2 decades

39. Habitats - Mangroves • Attribute causes • Clearance for brackish water ponds • Over-exploitation for timber and charcoal • Clearance for development • Sedimentation and pollution • Consequences • Reduced protection from coastal erosion and natural disaster • Reduced nursery grounds for commercial and non-commercial fish and invertebrates • Loss of habitat for endangered species • Economic loss for the timber industry

40. Habitat: Peat swamp forests • Evidences of decline • Sumatra (Indonesia): 7.3-9.3 million hectares to 3.6 million hectares (50% reduction) • West coast of Peninsular Malaysia: 299,145 hectares (77% of this area are indicated as “disturbed and logged-over”)

41. Habitat: Peat swamp forests • Attribute causes • Logging of commercially valuable tree species • Land conversion to rice, palm and coconut plantations • Consequences • Loss of biodiversity • Similar to the consequences of the loss of mangrove coverage

42. Habitat: Coral reefs • Evidences of decline • No data on the total area of coral reefs in the Straits and the loss of coral reef area • Indonesia: • Poor condition: 42%; Fair condition: 29%; Good condition: 24%; Excellent condition: 5% • Malaysia: • Most of the coral reefs are rated as fair condition • Singapore: • Among the most stressed in Asia coral reef

43. Habitat: Coral reefs • Attributed causes • Fishing damage • Pollution e.g. metals, oil spills and pesticides • Massive land reclamation in Singapore • Consequences • Reduced in physical protection of shorelines • Loss of biodiversity • Reduced in fishery production • Loss of tourist attraction

44. Habitat: Seagrass beds • Evidences of decline • No quantitative data on areal coverage or its loss • Singapore: Extensive seagrass beds  Isolated patches • 50 known seagrass species • Indonesia:12 species • West coast of Peninsular Malaysia: 9 species • Singapore: 9 species decline to 7 species(1990s)

45. Habitat: Seagrass beds • Attributed causes • Destruction due to the conversion to coastal aquaculture • Natural disaster e.g. storm and disease • Deposits of mining spoils and tailings • Excessive sediments due to deforestation Pollution • Consequences • Loss of buffering zone from wave action • Reduced stabilization of sediment • Reduced in biodiversity • Loss of harvestable invertebrates, macroalgae and grass • loss of nursery grounds for fishes

46. Habitat: Soft-bottom habitats • Evidences of decline • Straits: covered by sandy and muddy bottom extensively • * Quality in supporting species • An examination of effects on female reproductive systems in gastropods in terms of percent female imposex • Negative correlations between females with imposex and distance to the nearest shipping route

47. Habitat: Soft-bottom habitats • Attributed causes • Physical disruption by trawling • Contamination of sediments from pollutants • Consequences • Loss of tourism attraction e.g. sandy beach • Decline for fisheries production

48. Biodiversity • Assessment endpoint: population density and species diversity

49. Biodiversity • Evidence of decline on on-commercial species • Population density: Two indigenous fish species (Alosa toil and Lactarius lacarius) are getting rare in Singapore • Species diversity: 52 species of fish, 13 species of coral and anemones, 12 specie of crustaceans – extinct; >50 other species – threatened in Singapore

50. Biodiversity • The increasing deterioration of environmental conditions in the Straits and increasing human activities result in changes of species composition (disappearance of other species and the increasing number of endangered species)