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English Linguistics 1

English Linguistics 1. 5. Sentences and syntax What is syntax about? working definition: syntax is the system that tells us how to put 'words' together to produce phrases, clauses, sentences . focus of the lecture on:

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English Linguistics 1

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  1. English Linguistics 1

  2. 5. Sentences and syntax What is syntax about? working definition: syntax is the system that tells us how to put 'words' together to produce phrases, clauses, sentences Session 7

  3. focus of the lecture on: word classes / parts of speech,grammatical functions / sentence elements,grammatical categories,levels:word, phrase, clause, sentence,simple and complex sentences,sentence types,approaches to grammatical description Session 7

  4. 5 Sentences and syntax  5.1 What's a sentence, what's in a sentence? Sentence, syntax, grammar, types, grammaticality 5.2 Traditional Grammar 5.2.1 Parts of Speech, word classes / Wortarten 5.2.2 Grammatical categories 5.2.3 Sentence elements / Satzglieder 5.2.4 Sentence types 5.2.5 Criticism of traditional grammar Session 7

  5. 5.3 Structuralist grammar 5.4 Generative transformational grammar 5.5 Universal grammar 5.6 Functional grammar Session 7

  6. 5.1 What's a sentence, what's in a sentence? sentence "a group of words so put together that they express a thought" (Merriam–Webster Pocket D.) Session 7

  7. "a group of words that usually contains a subject and a verb … [and] expresses a complete idea [...]" (DCE 2007) "the largest structural unit which is organized by the grammar of a language"(Crystal 1997) Session 7

  8. explain possible difficulties with the terms used: 'thought' a beautiful woman … I looked at the woman but I did not dare talk to her. … Session 7

  9. 'subject + verb' 1. The book is on the table. 2. It’s raining. 3. Come in. 4. Some more tea? Yes, please. 1. 2. 3. 4. Session 7

  10. difficulties with spoken language When they fed the pigs / they all had to stand well back / - and they were allowed to take the buckets / - but they weren’t allowed to get near the pigs / you see / - so they weren’t happy… several sentences or one sentence? Session 7

  11. conclusion: notion of 'sentence' is a useful one but search for satisfactory definition – no priority (over 200 different definitions!) the aim is to be able to recognize linguistic constructions as sentences Session 7

  12. the term syntax Greek syn tassein syntaxis  … Session 7

  13. definitions of syntax: "term for the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language [...] study of the interrelationship between elements of sentencestructure" (Crystal 1997) grammar – usually includes 'syntax and inflectional morphology' Session 7

  14. Types of grammar • traditional grammar – • structuralist – mixed/combined - Session 7

  15. generative – • functional – • prescriptive – Session 7

  16. descriptive – • pedagogical – • reference – universal / theoretical – Session 7

  17. Jespersen, Otto (1909-1949) A modern English grammar on historical principles. 7 vols. Copenhagen. Quirk, Randolph et al. (1985) A comprehensive grammar of the English language. London. Greenberg, J. H. (1986) The role of universals in linguistic explanation. Stanford. Halliday, M.A.K. (1985) An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London.  Session 7

  18. Grammaticality versus adequacy / semantic and situationalacceptability Grammatikalität vs. Angemessenheit / semantische und situative Angemessenheit thesyntacticcomponentof a languagedecides upon grammaticality, itdoes not decide upon truth, falseness, acceptability Session 7

  19. examine the following examples according to these concepts: • The sun is cold. • The sun are warm. • The suns is warm. • The sun is warm. • The suns are delicious. • I do not like the moons. • The sun slept. Session 7

  20. Ex. 1. Waiter, we'd like two beers, please. 2. Bring us two beers, please. comment: … Session 7

  21. probably literal translations of 1. 2. pragmatically adequate 1. 2. [pragmatics / G Pragmatik, Pragmalinguistik] Session 7

  22. role of syntax in the constitution of sentence meaning, find out two possible interpretations: 1. Ship sails tomorrow. 2. Time flies, you cannot: Their flight is too erratic. 3. The dogs looked longer than the cat. 4. Avoid infection by killing germs. 5. What has four wheels and flies? 6. British bitter wins in Europe. Session 7

  23. 1a 1b 2a 2b 3a 3b 4a 4b Session 7

  24. 5a 5b 6a 6b Session 7

  25. 5.2 Traditional grammar Tradition of grammars since Greek and Latinphilosophy of language two determining features (1) parts of speech / word classes / G Wortarten / -klassen (2) relations between sentence elements / G Satzglieder word classes dominant characteristic of modern foreign language grammars Session 7

  26. 5.2.1 Parts of speech, word classes classification according to formal and notionalfeatures DionysiosThrax (2ndcty B.C.)noun, verb, adjective, adverb, article, pronoun, preposition, conjunction Nomen (Substantiv), Verb, Adjektiv, Adverb, Artikel, Pronomen, Präposition, Konjunktion later additions: interjection and numeral / G Interjektion, Numerale Session 7

  27. classification procedures: 1. reference to notionalfeatures noun, verb, adjective N - V - A - German: Session 7

  28. 2. reference to formal features Adv - Prep - Conj - Noun - criticism: a good grammar should have the same criteria for classification of categories Session 7

  29. modern linguistics favours formal over notional definitions,provide better means of identifying constructions Twasbrillig, and the slithytovesDid gyre and gimble in the wabe; All mimsy were the borogoves, And the momerathsoutgrabe. Session 7

  30. Grouping of word classes according to structural similarities 1. inflexion / inflection / Flexion • inflexional / inflectional categories • non-inflexional Session 7

  31. 2. expansion / Erweiterbarkeit: • open class items / offeneKlassen N, V, A, Adv • closed class items / geschlosseneKlassen Prep, Conj, Pron, Art Session 7

  32. 5.2.2 Grammaticalcategories in traditional grammar term 'grammatical category'refers to the properties of the word classes, functions signalled by parts of speech noun: verb: Session 7

  33. adjective: G: = categories of noun, + strong / weak eingrüner Baum vs. dergrüne Baum pronouns: I - me, he - him, she - her, ... … adverb: article: definteness Session 7

  34. history of English change in the syntactic type of language Old English primarily synthetic language … Modern English more analytic language … Session 7

  35. Other syntactic features • concord, agreement / G Kongruenz a form of one word requires a corresponding form of another English: singular subject + V present tense  … (exception …) Lat, G: ... Session 7

  36. government (G Rektion) linkage whereby one word requires a specificform of anothere.g. Latin, German Prepostions govern nouns, … L ad  G für Session 7

  37. verbs require an object or not: … … … He made her a cup of coffee. Session 7

  38. verbs require gerund or infinitive Try to avoid travel in the rush hour. I couldn't help laugh . He promised obey me. We attempted break free. He stopped talk to them. He went on say . He longed hear her voice again. He pretended pity her. Session 7

  39. 5.2.3 Sentence elements / Satzglieder elements / constituents of a sentence characterized by a specific grammatical function, functional elements of clause structure The burglar sneezed loudly. Subject Predicate S V A Session 7

  40. Session 7

  41. Basic sentence patterns in declaratives (without optional elements): Session 7

  42. Session 7

  43. English: fixedSVOorder German:main clauses: … ... ... subordinate clauses : …, Session 7

  44. sentence elements may be complex [Most of the almost two thousand people in her village] S[considered] V [her] Od [an absolutely perfect mother loved and admired by her family] Co. Session 7

  45. subordinate clauses may function as sentence elementstask: 1. determine the subordinate clause 2. decide which function itfulfills Session 7

  46. adverbial clauses (semantic classification): Session 7

  47. Session 7

  48. 5.2.4 Sentence types many traditional (learner) grammars list statement, question, command, exclamation (Alexander, L. G. (1990) Longman English Grammar Practice) or statement, question, imperative (Close, R. A. (1975) A Reference Grammar for Students of English) = mix of formal and notional categories, e.g. statement, command, exclamation (notional), imperative (formal), question (notional/formal) Session 7

  49. structuralistand most mixed grammatical approaches, e.g. Quirk et al 1985, Huddleston 1988, distinguish clearly between formal and functional (notional) levels of sentences; typesaccordingto formal criteria 1. Declarative 2. Interrogative (wh-questions, yes/no-questions) 3. Imperative 4. Exclamative Session 7

  50. 1. normal for S toprecede V Pauline gave Tom an iPodforhisbirthday. 2. twotypes: 2.a yes-no interrogative: operator in front of S … 2.b wh-interrogative:wh-element positioned initially, subject-operator inversion … Session 7

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