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Human capital or human development? Education policy and China’s urban-rural divide

Human capital or human development? Education policy and China’s urban-rural divide. Li Wang Zhejiang University, China. Structure of the presentation. Human capital, human development Content analysis of selected legal and administrative documents Education inequality in China.

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Human capital or human development? Education policy and China’s urban-rural divide

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  1. Human capital or human development?Education policy and China’s urban-rural divide Li Wang Zhejiang University, China

  2. Structure of the presentation • Human capital, human development • Content analysis of selected legal and administrative documents • Education inequality in China

  3. The human capital approach • Education as investment on human capital • personality traits that contribute to social production • Individual: • increased employability and higher income • Society: • increased productivity, better equipped workforce, and well educated population • Emphasis on instrumental values

  4. Measurement: • Resource based • Input and output • Strength: easy to measure • Weakness: • Neglect intrinsic value of education • Reduce education process to resource input and output • Inadequate to analyze inequality

  5. The human development approach • UNDP: human development report • ‘Widening people’s choices and the level of their achieved well-being’ (UNDP 1990) • National income -> people centered • Overall enhancement of human life as the ends of development; income is means to realize potentials • The expansion of choices and enhancement of well-being rest fully on Sen’s core idea of capability and agency

  6. The capability approach • Disputesresources-based concept of justice • Distributionof capabilities • Processequity: the achievement of capabilities • Opportunityequity: the freedom to do so • Evaluative aspect and agency aspect • Whatpeople can really do and be

  7. Key concepts • Functioning: • the various things a person may value doing or being • living conditions • Achievements • Capability: • what real opportunities you have regarding the life you may lead • the ability to achieve

  8. Agency: • ‘one’s ability to pursue goals that one values • Agency freedom: • selection process of capabilities and functioning, in which the criteria for selection depend only on one’s own values and objectives

  9. Individual difference in conversion from resource to capability • Institutionaldesign vs. individual capability • Structural capabilities, social capabilities and personal capabilities(Jackson 2005) • Three levels of analysis: individual, societal and structural

  10. Emphasis on conversion from resource to capability then to function • Beyond the resource assessment and open the ‘black box’ • Positive and negative impacts of education on capability • Positive: intrinsic and instrumental • Negative: diminish other capabilities • Problems: • Operationalization • Difficult to understand and promote

  11. Policy values • The Constitution (People’s Congress 1982), the Act of Education (People’s Congress 1995), and the Act of Compulsory Education (People’s Congress 1986), • Decision on Deepening Educational Reform and Promoting Quality Education (中共中央国务院关于深化教育改革，全面推进素质教育的决定, CCCCP and State Council 1999), Decision on Reform and Development on Basic Education (国务院关于基础教育改革与发展的决定, State Council 2001), Outline for Curriculum Reform in Basic Education (temporary) (基础教育课程改革纲要(试行), Ministry of Education (MOE) 2001), Notice on Active Promotion of Reform on Evaluation and Exam System in Primary and Middle School (教育部关于积极推进中小学评价与考试制度改革的通知, MOE 2002), and Curriculum Reform for Normal Senior High Schools (普通高中课程方案（实验）MOE 2003)

  12. The Constitution • Aim: ‘train specialized personnel to serve socialism’ (国家培养为社会主义服务的各种专业人才) • contribute to economic development and to reinforce ideological control • Freedomto do scientific, artistic and other cultural research and activities • Culture identity: ethnic minorities are allowed to use their own language and to keep or change cultural traditions • Equality among gender and ethnicity • Dignity, right to rest and bodily integrity

  13. Act of Compulsory Education • Aim: ‘cultivateconstructors and inheritors with lofty ideals, morals, knowledge and a strong sense of discipline for socialism’ (培养有理想、有道德、有文化、有纪律的社会主义建设者和接班人). • Control on textbooks • Political control; quality control • Restrictions on information, manipulation of thought

  14. Whole person development • Ability to think independently, to act and to be creative • Extra-curriculum activities • Respect and dignity are emphasized, while corporal punishment is banned • Health and safety • Equal access to education for students regardless of ‘gender, ethnicity, race, family background and religion’

  15. Act of education • Development of education is to improve the quality of population and to speed up the socialist material and spiritual construction • Education on patriotism, collectivism and socialism • Free from any religious influence • Knowledge ‘must match the need of production’

  16. Focus on instrumental value of education • encouragement on life-long learning, enhancement of people’s scientific and artistic abilities • more related with the aim of becoming better socialist constructors than expanding personal well-being

  17. Decision on Deepening Educational Reform and Promoting Quality Education • Promote quality education and transform exam-oriented pedagogy • Pedagogy is expected to encourage student participation, independent thinking and creativity • Ability to acquire and process knowledge • Right to play • Ability to communicate and cooperate • Ability to integrate into society

  18. Decision on Reform and Development on Basic Education • Whole person development • Ban ranking of test scores • Active learner, life long learner • Confidence • Justice, respect, dignity and friendship

  19. Outline for Curriculum Reform in Basic Education (temporary) • Similar values: • Active learners, with ability to be creative, to solve problems, to communicate and cooperate, and to integrate into society • Pedagogy: encourage participation and interaction, sensitive to students’ dignity and diversity • Social responsibility • Environmental awareness

  20. Notice on Active Promotion of Reform on Evaluation and Exam System in Primary and Middle School • Rectify the overemphasis on test scores • Promote quality education as in previous policies

  21. Curriculum Reform for Normal Senior High Schools • Quality education • Democracy, rule of law • Cultural diversity • Openness to the world

  22. The policies • Student centered pedagogy • Human development values • Whole person development approach is framed in a human capital context • Socialist ideology + productivity

  23. To summarize: • Primary aim: train socialist constructors – human capital • Individual level: • Transferable skills and employability • Essential capabilities of Nassbaum (2000) • Restrictions: • Religious freedom • Political and ideological control

  24. Urban-rural divide and education inequality in China • Structural barriers for rural students • The hukou system: two economies, two societies • Written into law • Migrant children’s education • Lack of legal backup to reduce the urban-rural divide

  25. Restrictions on capability and freedom • ‘Key point’ schools • Concentratinginvestment • Hierarchicalschool system • Unequalaccess to quality education • Restricted mobility, restricted choice and agency freedom • Inadequacy in providing knowledge and skills necessary • Labeling • Low academic performance and aspiration

  26. Inequalityin resource distribution • ‘The essential solution is proper allocation of educational resources’(State Council 2010, chapter 1, article 2).

  27. Figure 1: Budgetary expenditure on basic education (2004) Source: developed from UNDP 2008.

  28. Figure 2: Percentage of teachers meeting the national minimum requirement on educational attainment (2006) Source: developed from UNDP 2008.

  29. Figure 3: Percentage of teachers with high educational attainment (2006) Source: developed from UNDP 2008.

  30. Figure 4: Percentage of teachers with senior professional rank (2007) Source: developed from MOE 2008.

  31. Regional disadvantage of the rural area • Human capital: • Influence in policy making • Inequality in resource distribution • Underdeveloped rural economy

  32. Figure 5: Consumption expenditure of urban and rural households (per year) (1978-2008) Source: NBSC 2010

  33. Human development: • New dimension: collective capability • Affectrural students as a whole • Reason: passive exclusion • Poorer living and learning environment • Move to cities when have chances

  34. Concluding remarks • From policy content: • Both approaches are adopted, but at different levels • Primary aim: socialist development • Then: individual capabilities, with restrictions • From reality: • Inequality in terms of human capital • Restrictions on freedom • Limited social and structural capabilities

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