The Age of Mass Politics

1. The Age of Mass Politics 1815-1915

2. Overview • 1815-1848 • Conservatism • Liberalism • Nationalism • The Revolutions of 1848 • The Age of RealPolitik (1848-1871) • The Rise of Socialism • The Age of Mass Politics (1871-1915)

3. Conservatism • Protection of the status quo • The Concert of Europe • They were all singing the same tune • First meeting in Vienna 1814 • To settle the questions of territory and politics after Napoleon • France, England, Austria, Russia • Territorial changes that reflected the personal interests of the leaders involved • Other meetings • 1818 The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle • 1819 Protocol of Troppau • 1822 Congress of Verona • Rebellions in the Americas • Europe lost control • The Monroe Doctrine • No more meetings after 1822 • Failed as an international force

4. Conservatism • Russia • 1825 Alexander I dies suddenly • Young liberal thinkers hoped to see Constantine take the throne • Instead Nicholas I became Tsar • Decembrist Revolt

5. Conservatism • France (1815-1830) • P.M. Talleyrand suggested Louis XVIII • Old and in poor health; he was unexciting, safe, and legitimate • Signed the Charter • Maintained principles from the revolution • Equality before the law • Religious freedom (Catholicism is state religion) • The Napoleonic Code • Organization of the county by departments • And property rights from the revolution and Napoleonic periods • Only large property owners could vote • Elected a two-house Assembly • France was returned to 1792 borders

6. Conservatism • France (1815-1830) • 1815: white terror • Napoleon returns for 100 days • Louis flees and returns after Napoleon’s final defeat • Reaction continued • Catholic attacks on Protestants • 1820: Louis nephew was assassinated • More repression • Charles X • Spokesperson for the conservative aristocracy • Reduced interest on public debt • Hurt the middle class who had loaned money to the state • Rumors that he planned to rescind constitutional limits on his authority • Appointed a conservative chief minister • “July Revolution” of 1830

7. Conservatism • German States (1815-1830) • The German Confederation • German nationalism dominated universities and artistic leaders • Students formed clubs collectively called Burschenschaft • Austria is leading German State • Metternich suspicious; wants to prevent German unity • Actions of the Burschenschaft were very limited; occasional demonstrations or marches; mostly they wrote • 1819 a member of the Burschenschaft murdered and extremely conservative public figure • Carlsbad Decrees • Outlawed the Burschenschaft • Applied censorship throughout the German states • University students and professors would be watched • Teachers were blacklisted

8. Conservatism • Austria • Metternich • Except for Russia, the Austrian Empire was the most populous European state • Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary each had own language • Other minority languages: Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian, Slovakian and others • Controlled parts of Northern Italy; Vienna is the Capital of the Austrian Empire • Idea of government was of a benevolent ruling house, the Habsburgs, who had no special connection to the people it ruled • Metternich remains in control until 1848

9. Conservatism • England (1815-1832) • Grain Controversy • Corn Laws • Hurt consumers (kept bread prices high) • Hurt manufacturers (kept wages high) • After 1815 again possible to import grain • New legislation forbade imports unless prices skyrocketed

10. Conservatism • England (1815-1832) • Bad economic times for laborers; high unemployment • 1819 the Peterloo Massacre • Peaceful demonstration • Local authorities overreacted • Killed 11 and wounded about 400 • New laws passed restricting public meetings • Representation in Parliament • No changes in electoral districts since before the Industrial Revolution • “virtually represented” • Rotten boroughs • Pocket boroughs • Only 1 out of every 15 males could vote • Reform Bill of 1832

11. Liberalism • Characteristics • Product of the Enlightenment • Liberal-minded people, members of upper middle class, often professionals • Believed in constitutions and representative government • Protection of human rights (freedom of expression and religion and equality before the law)

12. Liberalism • Characteristics • Not democrats • Did not trust the masses • Did not favor universal male suffrage • Strongly opposed to revolution • Did not promote voting rights for women • Preferred laissez-faire economics and disapproved of unions • Government should stay out of business except to protect private property and maintain an atmosphere conducive to manufacturing and trade

13. Liberalism • Characteristics • Secular world view • Rejected church teachings • Distrust of the military • Change should come through legislation • Trusted science and education, human improvement and progress

14. Liberalism • England • Reform Bill of 1832 • Doubled the number of men who could vote • Did eliminate some smaller boroughs and seats reallocated to the new industrial centers • 1838 Anti-Corn Law League • 1845 Irish Potato famine • Tory Prime Minister Robert Peel • Believed that without reform there would be rebellion • Reform led to Peel fall from office • Irish peasants did not really benefit from reform because of British landlords • Crop failures in 1848 and 1851 resulted in mass Irish migration (mostly to U.S.) • Repeal did prove the ability of the British gov’t to compromise • Also committed England to international economic system depending on foreign trade

15. Liberalism • France: Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 • Charles X dismisses Chamber of Deputies and calls for new elections • Liberals won • Charles issues four July Ordinances • First dissolved the newly elected Chamber before it met • Second censored the press • Third greatly reduced the franchise that excluded upper middle class • Fourth called for new elections based on the revised franchise • Mobs took to the street setting up barricades and flying the tricolor flag of the revolution • King’s soldiers were targets and refused to support the king • Charles abdicated and fled to England

16. Liberalism • France: Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 • July Monarchy • On recommendation of Marquis de Lafayette, France replaced Charles with his cousin Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans • Careful to play down “royal image” • Dressed in a business suit and carried an umbrella • Ruled for 18 years until 1848 • Louis was conservative even though the government maintained an appearance of liberalism • Wanted support of upper bourgeoisie, catered to them • Reformers and democrats were disappointed • 1840: Egypt incident • French workers demanded voting rights

17. Liberalism • France: Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 • February 1848 • Workers rally: electoral reform • Premier Francois Guizot forbid the rally • People still gathered and the army refused to disperse the crowd • King dismissed Guizot, but army still fired on the crowd killing about 40 people • Street fighting resulted • Louis Philippe abdicated • Chamber of Deputies sets up provisional government • Made up of republicans and one socialist: Louis Blanc

18. Liberalism • France: Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 • Actions of the provisional gov’t • Universal male suffrage • End of slavery in the colonies • Abolition of the death penalty • Country divided politically • Orleanists • Legitimists • Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon • Republicans also divided • Socialists: followers of Louis Blanc demanded gov’t help to provide jobs

19. Liberalism • France: Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 • Provisional Government • Opened National workshops • Agreed to 10-hour workday • Held elections in April 1848 • Conservatives were big winners • Rural peasant vote: anti-liberal, anti-workshops, and anti-taxes • Violence escalated • Provisional gov’t closed workshops • Bloody June Days • General Cavaignac • Provisional government drafts new constitution • Presidential elections scheduled before it was finished • Louis Napoleon Bonaparte won by huge majority

20. Nationalism • Greece • Movement led by Ypsilanti in 1821 failed • Western romantic writers took up the cause • Turks continued to alienate the West • Island massacre • Executed the Christian leader ofConstantinople • Treaty of London 1827 • England, France, and Russia support Greek independence • Threatened Turkey with military action • Sent a naval forced that destroyedthe Turkish fleet • Greek independence in 1832

21. Nationalism • Belgium • Kingdom of the Netherlands • Constitutional monarchy, ruled by House of Orange (same as England) • Economically successful • Unpopular politically • Dutch king was absolutist, Belgians were virtually independent • Belgians were Catholic; Dutch were Calvinists • Belgians spoke French or Flemish; resented being forced to use Dutch as official language

22. Nationalism • Belgium • 1830 Belgian leaders asked for self-government • Dutch response militant, but eventually withdrew • Belgium proclaimed independence and began to draft constitution • Belgium became a perpetually neutral country • Defended by Britain and France • Constitutional monarchy, two-house parliament elected by 1 out of every 30 males

23. Nationalism • Germany: Philosophies and Revolution • Ideas of the Philosophy of the History of Mankind • J.G. Herder • German ways are different from others • Volkgeist: spirit of the people • Romantic idea • Emphasized genius and intuition over reason • Stressed differences rather than similarities • German customs and traditions must be kept pure • Opposite of Enlightenment ideas; certain truths are universal

24. Nationalism • Germany: Philosophies and Revolution • Other German writers urged unity based on language, history, and folk traditions • The Brothers Grimm • G.W.F. Hegel • Reality is a process of endless change; dialectic • Tendency of the human mind to proceed through reaction of opposites • Thesis, antithesis, synthesis • Leopold von Ranke • Mission to create a purely German state • Friedrich List • For a nation to develop its own culture it must have cities, factories, and capital of its own; tariffs to protect new industries

25. Nationalism • Germany: Philosophies and Revolution • King of Prussia, Frederick William IV • 1848 promised a constitution • The Frankfurt Assembly • Debated the question of German unity • Problems • Small states treasured independence • No one wanted Austria or Prussia to dominate minor states • Junkers: East Prussian • Contempt for the rest of Germany • Considered by central and western states as backward • Not actually backward • Popularly elected parliament • Zollverein (free tax union)

26. Nationalism • Germany: Philosophies and Revolution • Berlin Assembly • Different from Frankfurt Assembly • All Prussian affair • Liberal • Weakness of the Frankfurt Assembly • No aspect of national unity • Professional people: lawyers and gov’t officials, Catholic clergy, and businessmen • No connection with the masses • Schleswig and Holstein • German states at the base of Denmark • Denmark attempted to annex Schleswig; Frankfurt had to as Prussia for help in defending Germans

27. Nationalism • Germany: Philosophies and Revolution • Frankfurt central question: how to define Germany? • “big” or “little” Germany • Two important docs • Declaration of the Rights of the German People • Emphasized individual rights (freedom of religion, press, and assembly) • Emphasized “German” rights (not human rights) • German Constitution that excluded Austria • Failed to create unification

28. Nationalism • Italy: Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 • Congress of Vienna solidified patchwork region • Emerging nationalistic groups.

29. Nationalism • Italy: Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 • Resorgimento • A resurgence of Italian spirit or identity • Carbonari: secret society of Italian nationalists • Guiseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) Italian nationalist • Fought for liberal and romantic reasons • Founded new organization - Young Italy • focused on revolution and spreading brotherhood of free peoples • felt revolt must come from below • attempted revolutions 1834––36, 1844; all failed • 1848–– two outbursts of nationalism • Piedmont-Sardinia tried to take advantage of Austria’s vulnerability and enlarge its holdings in northern Italy • Many patriots joined the cause • Rome • Assassination of high church official • Pope flees Rome and radicals declare a new government with Mazzini as one of three rulers • Both efforts are defeated

30. Nationalism • Austrian Empire • Violence in Vienna––Metternich’s flight • Italian rebellion • Magyar revolt––led by Kossuth • Pan-Slav meeting in Prague • Jellachich and Serb-Croation army against Magyars • Abdication of Ferdinand––Francis Joseph • Russian Army to restore order in Hungary