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Unit V

Unit V. Measurement, Scaling and Sampling. The Steps for Research process. Theoretical Framework.

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Unit V

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  1. Unit V Measurement, Scaling and Sampling

  2. The Steps for Research process

  3. Theoretical Framework • A theoretical framework represents your beliefs on how certain phenomena (or variables or concepts) are related to each other (a model) and an explanation on why you believe that these variables are associated to each other (a theory).

  4. Theoretical Framework • Basic steps: • Identify and label the variables correctly • State the relationships among the variables: formulate hypotheses • Explain how or why you expect these relationships

  5. Variables • Any concept or construct that varies or changes in value • Abstract concepts measured using variables (Operationalization) • Main types of variables: • Dependent variable • Independent variable • Moderating variable (or interacting) • Mediating variable (or intervening)

  6. (In)dependent Variables • Dependent variable (DV) • Is of primary interest to the researcher. The goal of the research project is to understand, predict or explain the variability of this variable. • Independent variable (IV) • Influences the DV in either positive or negative way. The variance in the DV is accounted for by the IV.

  7. The Moderating Variable • Is one that has a strong contingent effect on the independent variable-dependent variable relationship. • The presence of the moderating variable modifies the original relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

  8. Example • A prevalent theory is that the diversity of the workforce (according to different ethnic origins, races, and nationalities) contributes more to organizational effectiveness because each group brings it own special expertise and skills to the workplace. This synergy can be exploited, however, only if managers know how to harness the special talents of the diverse work group; otherwise, they will remain untapped.

  9. The Intervening Variable • Is one that surfaces between the time the independent variables start operating to influence the dependent variable and the time their impact is felt on it.

  10. Example • A prevalent theory is that the diversity of the workforce (according to different ethnic origins, races, and nationalities) contributes more to organizational effectiveness because each group brings it own special expertise and skills to the workplace. This synergy can be exploited, however, only if managers know how to harness the special talents of the diverse work group; otherwise, they will remain untapped.

  11. Example 9 Cont. • The dependent variable: the organizational effectiveness. • The independent variable: the workforce diversity. • The intervening variable that surfaces as a function of the diversity in the workforce is creative synergy.

  12. The Intervening Variable • This creative synergy results from the "diverse" workforce interacting and bringing together their expertise in problem solving. • Note that creative synergy, the intervening variable, surfaces at time t2, as a function of workforce diversity, which was in place at time t1, to bring about organizational effectiveness in time t3. The dynamics of these relationships are illustrated in Figures 6 and 7.

  13. Figure: Schematic Diagram on student performance

  14. Different Kinds of Variables • Dichotomous: Two valued variables. Example: Sex (male/female) Two • Polytomous: Multiple values for variables. Example: Religion (Catholicism, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism, etc…) • Continuous: A variable that takes on an infinite number of values within a range. Example: Height & Weight

  15. Explanatory variable Independent variable x-value Predictor Input Regressor Response variable Dependent variable y-value Predictand Output Regressand A Rose by any other name...

  16. Measurement and Scaling

  17. Some Key Concepts • Measurement • Assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects being measured, according to predetermined rules. • Concept (or Construct) • A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes. • Relatively concrete constructs • Age, gender, number of children, education, income • Relatively abstract constructs • Brand loyalty, personality, organizational committment, satisfaction

  18. Some Key Concepts • Scale • A quantifying measure – a combination of items that is progressively arranged according to value or magnitude. • Purpose is to quantitatively represent an item’s, person’s, or event’s place in the scaling continuum.

  19. Figure 9.3 Primary Scales of Measurement Primary Scales of Measurement Primary Scales Nominal Scale Ratio Scale Ordinal Scale Interval Scale

  20. Primary Scales of Measurement • Nominal • A scale in which the numbers or letters assigned to objects serve as labels for identification or classification. • Ordinal • A scale that arranges objects or alternatives according to their magnitude in an ordered relationship.

  21. Primary Scales of Measurement • Interval • A scale that both arranges objects according to their magnitudes and • Distinguishes the ordered arrangement in units of equal intervals • I.e., indicate order and measure order (or distance) in units of equal intervals

  22. Primary Scales of Measurement • Ratio • A scale that has absolute rather than relative quantities and an absolute zero where a given attribute is absent. • Money & weight are good examples of attributes that possess absolute zeros and interval properties.

  23. Measurement and Scaling Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are located. Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 100. Each respondent is assigned a number from 1 to 100, with 1 = Extremely Unfavorable, and 100 = Extremely Favorable. Measurement is the actual assignment of a number from 1 to 100 to each respondent. Scaling is the process of placing the respondents on a continuum with respect to their attitude toward department stores.

  24. Third place Second place First place Primary Scales of Measurement Scale NominalNumbers Assigned to Runners OrdinalRank Order of Winners IntervalPerformance Rating on a 0 to 10 Scale Ratio Time to Finish, in Seconds Finish NP US UK Finish 8 9 10 15.2 14.1 13.4

  25. Properties of the Four Scales

  26. Primary Scales of MeasurementNominal Scale • The numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects. • When used for identification, there is a strict one-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the objects. • The only permissible operation on the numbers in a nominal scale is counting. • Only a limited number of statistics, all of which are based on frequency counts, are permissible, e.g., percentages, and mode.

  27. Illustration of Primary Scales of Measurement Nominal Ordinal Ratio Scale Scale Scale Preference $ spent last No. Store Rankings 3 months 1. Lord & Taylor 2. Macy’s 3. Kmart 4. Rich’s 5. J.C. Penney 6. Neiman Marcus 7. Target 8. Saks Fifth Avenue 9. Salesways 10.Wal-Mart IntervalScale Preference Ratings 1-7 11-17

  28. Primary Scales of MeasurementOrdinal Scale • A ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate the relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic. • Can determine whether an object has more or less of a characteristic than some other object, but not how much more or less. • Any series of numbers can be assigned that preserves the ordered relationships between the objects. • In addition to the counting operation allowable for nominal scale data, ordinal scales permit the use of statistics based on centiles, e.g., percentile, quartile, median.

  29. Primary Scales of MeasurementInterval Scale • Numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal values in the characteristic being measured. • It permits comparison of the differences between objects. • The location of the zero point is not fixed. Both the zero point and the units of measurement are arbitrary. • Statistical techniques that may be used include all of those that can be applied to nominal and ordinal data, and in addition the arithmetic mean, standard deviation, and other statistics commonly used in marketing research.

  30. Primary Scales of MeasurementRatio Scale • Possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and interval scales. • It has an absolute zero point. • It is meaningful to compute ratios of scale values. • All statistical techniques can be applied to ratio data.

  31. Primary Scales of Measurement

  32. Measurement and Scaling Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain prespecified rules. • One-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the characteristics being measured. • The rules for assigning numbers should be standardized and applied uniformly. • Rules must not change over objects or time.

  33. Scaling Techniques Non-comparative Scales Comparative Scales Continuous Rating Scales Itemized Rating Scales Paired Comparison Rank Order Constant Sum Semantic Differential Stapel Likert A Classification of Scaling Techniques

  34. Figure 9.5 A Classification of Scaling Techniques Classifying Scaling Techniques Scaling Techniques Noncomparative Scales Comparative Scales Itemized Rating Scales Continuous Rating Scales Paired Comparison Constant Sum Rank Order Likert Stapel Semantic Differential

  35. A Comparison of Scaling Techniques • Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects. Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or rank order properties. • In noncomparative scales, each object is scaled independently of the others in the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally assumed to be interval or ratio scaled.

  36. Comparative Scaling TechniquesPaired Comparison Scaling • A respondent is presented with two objects and asked to select one according to some criterion. • The data obtained are ordinal in nature. • Paired comparison scaling is the most widely used comparative scaling technique. • Lot of paired comparisons are required

  37. Obtaining Shampoo Preferences Using Paired Comparisons Instructions: We are going to present you with ten pairs of shampoo brands. For each pair, please indicate which one of the two brands of shampoo you would prefer for personal use. Recording Form: aA 1 in a particular box means that the brand in that column was preferred over the brand in the corresponding row. A 0 means that the row brand was preferred over the column brand. bThe number of times a brand was preferred is obtained by summing the 1s in each column.

  38. Paired Comparison Selling The most common method of taste testing is paired comparison. The consumer is asked to sample two different products and select the one with the most appealing taste. The test is done in private and a minimum of 1,000 responses is considered an adequate sample. A blind taste test for a soft drink, where imagery, self-perception and brand reputation are very important factors in the consumer’s purchasing decision, may not be a good indicator of performance in the marketplace. The introduction of New Coke illustrates this point. New Coke was heavily favored in blind paired comparison taste tests, but its introduction was less than successful, because image plays a major role in the purchase of Coke. A paired comparison taste test

  39. Comparative Scaling TechniquesRank Order Scaling • Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to some criterion. • It is possible that the respondent may dislike the brand ranked 1 in an absolute sense. • Furthermore, rank order scaling also results in ordinal data. • Only (n - 1) scaling decisions need be made in rank order scaling.

  40. Preference for Toothpaste Brands Using Rank Order Scaling Instructions: Rank the various brands of toothpaste in order of preference. Begin by picking out the one brand that you like most and assign it a number 1. Then find the second most preferred brand and assign it a number 2. Continue this procedure until you have ranked all the brands of toothpaste in order of preference. The least preferred brand should be assigned a rank of 10. No two brands should receive the same rank number. The criterion of preference is entirely up to you. There is no right or wrong answer. Just try to be consistent.

  41. Preference for Toothpaste Brands Using Rank Order Scaling Form Brand Rank Order 1. Crest _________ 2. Colgate _________ 3. Aim _________ 4. Gleem _________ 5. Macleans _________ 6. Ultra Brite _________ 7. Close Up _________ 8. Pepsodent _________ 9. Plus White _________ 10. Stripe _________

  42. Comparative Scaling TechniquesConstant Sum Scaling • Respondents allocate a constant sum of units, such as 100 points to attributes of a product to reflect their importance. • If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent assigns it zero points. • If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it receives twice as many points. • The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the name of the scale.

  43. Importance of Bathing Soap AttributesUsing a Constant Sum Scale Instructions On the next slide, there are eight attributes of bathing soaps. Please allocate 100 points among the attributes so that your allocation reflects the relative importance you attach to each attribute. The more points an attribute receives, the more important the attribute is. If an attribute is not at all important, assign it zero points. If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it should receive twice as many points.

  44. Importance of Bathing Soap AttributesUsing a Constant Sum Scale Form Average Responses of Three SegmentsAttribute Segment I Segment II Segment III 1. Mildness 2. Lather 3. Shrinkage 4. Price 5. Fragrance 6. Packaging 7. Moisturizing 8. Cleaning Power Sum

  45. Non-comparative Scaling Techniques • Respondents evaluate only one object at a time, and for this reason non-comparative scales are often referred to as monadic scales. • Non-comparative techniques consist of continuous and itemized rating scales.

  46. Continuous Rating Scale Respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other. The form of the continuous scale may vary considerably. How would you rate Salesways as a department store? Version 1 Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Probably the best Version 2 Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - Probably the best 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Version 3 Very bad Neither good Very good nor bad Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Probably the best 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

  47. EXAMPLE OF Graphical/Continous Rating Scale Please evaluate each of the following attributes of compact disc players according to how important the attribute is to you personally by placing an “X” at the position on the horizontal line that most accurately reflects your feelings. Not Important Extremely Important Attribute • Quality of sound • reproduction 2. Physical size of CD unit 3. Brand name 4. Durability of unit

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