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2.5 Reliable Transmission

2.5 Reliable Transmission. Acknowledgements & Timeouts Stop-and-Wait Sliding Window. A link level protocol that wants to deliver frames reliably must somehow recover from those discarded (lost) frames This is usually accomplished using a combination of two mechanisms

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2.5 Reliable Transmission

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  1. 2.5 Reliable Transmission • Acknowledgements & Timeouts • Stop-and-Wait • Sliding Window

  2. A link level protocol that wants to deliver frames reliably must somehow recover from those discarded (lost) frames • This is usually accomplished using a combination of two mechanisms • Acknowledgment (ACK) • an acknowledgment (ACK) is a small control frame that a protocol sends back to the sender to indicate the original frame was successfully delivered • Retransmit • if the sender does not receive an acknowledgment after a reasonable amount of time, then it retransmits the original frame

  3. Timeout • this action of waiting a reasonable amount of time is called a timeout • Automatic repeat request (ARQ) • the general strategy of using acknowledgments and timeouts to implement reliable delivery is sometimes called automatic repeat request (ARQ)

  4. Acknowledgements & Timeouts • The simplest ARQ scheme is the stop-and-wait algorithm • Stop-and-wait algorithm • after transmitting one frame, the sender waits for an acknowledgement (ACK) before transmitting the next frame • if the ACK does not arrive after a certain period of time, the sender times out and retransmits the original frame

  5. Timeline showing four different scenarios for the stop-and-wait algorithm • the sending side is represented on the left • the receiving side is depicted on the right • time flows from top to bottom • figure (a) to (d) • (a) shows the ACK is received before the timer expires • (b) and (c) show the original frame and the ACK, respectively, are lost • (d) shows the timeout fires too soon

  6. The “lost” means that the frame was corrupted while in transit, that this corruption was detected by an error code on the receiver, and that the frame was subsequently discarded

  7. Suppose the sender sends a frame and the receiver acknowledges it, but the acknowledgment is either lost or delayed in arriving • in both cases, the, sender times out and retransmits the original frame, but the receiver will think that it is the next frame, since it correctly received and acknowledged the first frame • this has the potential to cause duplicate of a frame to be delivered • to address this prob1em, the header for a stop-and-wait protocol usually includes a 1-bit sequence number – i.e., the sequence number can take on the values 0 and 1 - and the sequence numbers used for each frame alternate

  8. Stop-and-wait algorithm with 1-bit sequence number • the header for a stop-and-wait protocol includes a 1-bit sequence number (0 or 1) • when the sender retransmits frame 0, the receiver can determine that it is seeing a second copy of frame 0 rather than the first copy of frame 1 and therefore can ignore it

  9. shortcoming • it allows the sender to have only one outstanding (un-ACKed) frame on the link at a time, and this may far below the link’s capacity • example • a 1.5Mbps link with a 45-ms round-trip time • delay × bandwidth product • 45ms (RTT) × 1.5Mbps (link) = 67.5Kb (8KB)

  10. since the sender can send only one frame per RTT, and assuming a frame size of 1 KB, this implies a maximum sending rate • bits per frame ÷ time per frame = (1024 × 8) ÷ 0.045 = 182 Kbps or about 1/8th (= (182 ÷ 1024) ÷ 1.5) link’s capacity

  11. Sender Receiver Frame 0 ACK 0 Frame 1 ACK 1 Frame 0 ACK 0 Timeline for stop-and-wait with 1-bit sequence number

  12. Keeping the pipe full • to use the link fully, we’d like the sender to be able to transmit up to eight frames before having to wait for an acknowledgment (consider the 1/8th link’s utilization in the example) • the significance of the bandwidth × delay product is that it represents the amount of data that could be in transit • we would like to be able to send this much data without waiting for the first acknowledgment (ie., keeping the pipe full)

  13. Sliding Window • Allow multiple outstanding (un-ACKed) frames • Upper bound on un-ACKed frames, called window

  14. SW: Sender • Assign a sequence number (SeqNum) to each frame • Maintain three state variables • send window size (SWS) • the upper bound on the number of outstanding (unacknowledged) frames that the sender can transmit • last acknowledgment received (LAR) • the sequence number of the last acknowledgmentreceived • last frame sent (LFS) • the sequence number of the last frame sent

  15. < SWS ─ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ LAR LFS • Maintain invariant: LFS - LAR≦SWS • When an ACK arrives, the sender moves LAR to the right, thereby allowing the sender to transmit another frame • The sender associates a timer with each frame it transmits, and it retransmits the frame should the timer expire before an ACK is received • The sender has to be willing to buffer up to SWS frames since it must be prepared to retransmit them until they are acknowledged

  16. SW: Receiver • Maintain three state variables • receive window size (RWS) • the upper bound on the number of out-of-order frames that the receiver is willing to accept • largest frame acceptable (LAF) • the sequence number of the largest-acceptable frame • last frame received (LFR) • the sequence number of the last frame received

  17. < ─ RWS ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ LFR LAF • Maintain invariant: LAF - LFR≦RWS • Frame SeqNum arrives • if LFR < SeqNum≦LAF then accept (within the receiver’s window) • if SeqNum≦LFR or SeqNum > LAF then discarded (outside the receiver’s window)

  18. Let SeqNumToAck denote the largest sequence number not yet acknowledged, such that all frames with sequence numbers less than or equal to SeqNumToAck have been received • the receiveracknowledges the receipt of SeqNumToAck, even if higher-numbered packets have been received • this acknowledgement is said to be cumulative(漸增) • sets LFR = SeqNumToAck & adjusts LAF = LFR + RWS

  19. Example • suppose LFR = 5 (i.e., the last ACK the receiver sent was for sequence number 5), and RWS = 4 • this implies that LAF = 9 • should frames 7 and 8 arrive, they will be buffered because they are within the receiver’s window • no ACK needs to be sent since frame 6 is yet to arrive • frames7 and 8 are said to have arrived out of order

  20. should frame 6 then arrive • perhaps it was lost and had to be retransmitted, or perhaps it was simply delayed - the receiver acknowledges frame 8, bumps LFR to 8, and sets LAF to 12 • if frame 6 was in fact lost • then a timeout will have occurred at the sender, causing it to retransmit frame 6

  21. When a timeout occurs, the amount of data in transit decreases since the sender is unable to advance its window until frame 6 is acknowledged • this means that when packet losses occur, this scheme is no longer keeping the pipe full • Early detection of packet losses • giving more information to the sender makes it potentially easier for the sender to keep the pipe full, but adds complexity to the implementation

  22. sol-1 • the receiver could send a negative acknowledgment (NAK) for frame 6 as soon as frame 7 arrived (adds additional complexity to the receiver) • sol-2 • send additional acknowledgments of frame 5 when frames 7 and 8 arrived, e.g., a sender can use duplicate ACKs as a clue that a frame was lost • sol-3 • selective acknowledgment：the receiver acknowledges exactly those frames it has received, rather than just the highest-numbered frame received in order, e.g., the receiver could acknowledge the receipt of frames 7 and 8

  23. Send window size • selected according to how many frames we want to have outstanding on the link at a given time • SWS is easy to compute for a given delay × bandwidth product

  24. Receive window size • the receiver can set RWS to whatever it wants • RWS = 1 • the receiver will not buffer any frames that arrive out of order • RWS = SWS • the receiver can buffer any of the frames the sender transmits • RWS > SWS • makes no sense, it’s impossible for more than SWS frames to arrive out of order

  25. Sequence Number Space • SeqNum field is finite; sequence numbers wrap around (折回) • Sequence number space must be larger then number of outstanding frames, e.g. • stop-and-wait (1-bit): allows 1 outstanding frame at a time and has two distinct sequence numbers (0 &1) • a 3-bit field: allows 7 outstanding frame at a time and has 8 distinct sequence numbers (0..7)

  26. Is SWS≦MaxSeqNum-1 (MaxSeqNum is the number of available sequence numbers) correct? • if RWS = 1, then MaxSeqNum≧SWS+1 is correct[the receiver will not buffer any frames that arrive out of order] • if RWS=SWS, then MaxSeqNum≧SWS+1 is incorrect • example (MaxSeqNum=8 & SWS=7) • assumption • 3-bit SeqNum field (sequence numbers 0..7) • SWS=RWS=7 • Scenario (we want to avoid this) • the sender transmits frames 0..6, successfully arrive, but ACK lost • the receiver is now expecting frames 7, 0..5 (sequence numbers wrap around) • the sender times out and sends 0..6

  27. The sending window size can be no more than half as big as the number of available sequence numbers when RWS=SWS • SWS <(MaxSeqNum+1)/2 • General rule for arbitrary values of RWS and SWS • MaxSeqNum≧SWS+RWS • Implementation of Sliding Window (pp. 109-114)

  28. Frame Order and Flow Control • Sliding window protocol can be used to serve three different roles • reliably deliver frames across an unreliable link (the core function of the algorithm) • preserve the order in which frames are transmitted • this is easy to do at the receiver - since each frame has a sequence number, the receiver just makes sure that it does not pass a frame up to the next-higher-level protocol until it has already passed up all frames with a smaller sequence number • i.e., the receiver buffers out-of-order frames

  29. support flow control • a feedback mechanism by which the receiver is able to throttle the sender • keep the sender from overrunning the receiver, that is, from transmitting more data than the receiver is able to process • this is usually accomplished by augmenting the sliding window protocol so that the receiver not only acknowledges frames it has received, but also informs the sender of how many frames it has room (free buffer space) to receive

  30. Concurrent Logical Channels • Concurrent logical channels • multiplex several logical channels onto a single point-to-point link and to run the stop-and-wait algorithm on each of these logical channels • maintain 3 bits of state for each channel • channel busy (yes/no) • current sequence number out • next sequence number in • example: ARPANET

  31. 2.6 Ethernet (802.3) • History • developed by Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) in mid-1970s • roots in Aloha packet-radio network • 10 Mbps Ethernet is standardized by Xerox, DEC, and Intel in 1978 • Ethernet is standardized as IEEE 802.3

  32. Ethernet • a family of frame-based computer networking technologies for local area networks (LANs) • originally used a shared coaxial cable winding around a building or campus to every attached machine • a working example of the carrier sense, multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) governed the way the computers shared the channel

  33. carrier sense • means that all the nodes can distinguish between an idle and a busy link • collision detect • means that a node listens as it transmits and can therefore detect when a frame it is transmitting has interfered (collide) with a frame transmitted by another node

  34. a multiple-access network meaning that a set of nodes send and receive frames over a shared link • Ethernet can be thought of as being like a bus that has multiple stations plugged into it • data rates • Ethernet：10 Mbps • Fast Ethernet：100 Mbps • Gigabit Ethernet：1,000 Mbps

  35. Physical Properties • Ethernet segment • implemented on a coaxial cable of up to 500m (impedance of 50-ohm) • this cable is similar to the type used for cable TV, except cable TV’s 75 ohms • Host • connects to the Ethernet segment by tapping into it; taps must be 2.5m apart

  36. Transceiver • a small device directly attached to the tap • detects when the line is idle and drives the signal when the host is transmitting • receives incoming signals • connects to an Ethernet adaptor, which is plugged into the host • Adaptor • all the logic that makes up the Ethernet protocol is implemented in the adaptor

  37. Ethernet transceiver and adaptor

  38. Repeater • multiple Ethernet segments can be joined together by repeaters • a device that forwards digital signals, much like an amplifier forwards analog signals • no more than four repeaters may be positioned between any pair of hosts • an Ethernet has a total reach of only 2,500m • an Ethernet is limited to supporting a maximum of 1,024 hosts

  39. Ethernet repeater

  40. Example of Ethernet repeater • use just two repeaters between any pair of hosts • a segment running down the spine of a building with a segment on each floor

  41. Any signal placed on the Ethernet is broadcast over the entire network • signal • propagated in both directions • repeater • forward the signal on all ongoing segments

  42. terminator • attached to the end of each segment absorb the signal and keep it from bouncing back and interfering with trailing signals • Encoding • Ethernet uses the Manchester encoding scheme

  43. Coax cable evolution • 50-ohm coax cable • thick-net 10Base5 • 10 means 10Mbps • Base means baseband system • 5 means that a given segment can be no longer than 500m

  44. thin-net 10Base2 • 10Mbps • 2 means that a given segment can be no longer than 200m • 10BaseT • 10Mbps • T means twisted pair (Category 5 twisted pair) • limited to under 100m in length

  45. 100BaseT • 100Mbps • Category 5 twisted pair • limited to under 100m in length • 1000BaseT • 1000Mbps • Category 5 twisted pair • limited to under 100m in length

  46. Access Protocol • Media access control (MAC) • control access to the shared Ethernet link • implemented in hardware on the network adaptor • Ethernet is a bit oriented framing protocol • Frame format • Preamble (64 bits) • allows the receiver to synchronize with the signal • a sequence of alternating 0s and 1s

  47. Dest addr & Src addr (48 + 48 bits) • both the source and destination hosts are identified with a 48-b address • Type (16 bits) • demultiplexing key • it identifies to which of possibly many higher-level protocols this frame should be delivered • Body • 46 (used to detect a collision) to 1,500 bytes of data

  48. CRC (32 bits) • each frame includes a 32-bit CRC • from the host perspective, an Ethernet frame a 14-byte header • two 6-byte addresses • a 2-byte type field • the sending adaptor attaches the preamble, CRC, and postamble before transmitting, and the receiving adaptor removes them

  49. Ethernet • a bit-oriented framing protocol Ethernet frame format

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