Assessment of Respiratory Function

1. Assessment of Respiratory Function

2. Purpose of the Respiratory System • The lungs, in conjunction with the circulatory system, deliver oxygen to and expel carbon dioxide from the cells of the body. • The upper respiratory system warms and filters air. • The lungs accomplish gas exchange.

3. Structures of the Upper Respiratory Tract • Nose • Sinuses and nasal passages • Pharynx • Tonsils and adenoids • Larynx: epiglottis, glottis, vocal cords, and cartilages • Trachea

4. Paranasal Sinuses

5. Cross Section of Nasal Cavity

6. Upper Respiratory System

7. Structures of the Lower Respiratory System • Lungs • Pleura • Mediastinum • Lobes of the lungs: • Left: upper and lower • Right: upper, middle, and lower • Bronchi and bronchioles • Alveoli

8. Aveoli • Where gas exchange takes place • Alveolar-capillary membrane • Types of alveolar cells • Surfactant

9. Lower Respiratory System

10. The Lobes of the Lungs and Bronchiole Tree

11. Ventilation: the movement of air in and out of the airways. • The thoracic cavity is an airtight chamber. The floor of this chamber is the diaphragm. • Inspiration: contraction of the diaphragm (movement of this chamber floor downward) and contraction of the external intercostal muscles increases the space in this chamber. Lowered intrathoracic pressure causes air to enter through the airways and inflate the lungs. • Expiration: with relaxation, the diaphragm moves up and intrathoracic pressure increases. This increased pressure pushes air out of the lungs. Expiration requires the elastic recoil of the lungs. • Inspiration normally is 1/3rd of the respiratory cycle and expiration is 2/3rds.

12. Respiration • The process of gas exchange between atmospheric air and the blood at the alveoli, and between the blood cells and the cells of the body. • Exchange of gases occurs because of differences in partial pressures. • Oxygen diffuses from the air into the blood at the alveoli to be transported to the cells of the body. • Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the air at the alveoli to be removed form the body.

13. Gas Exchange and Respiratory Function

14. Ventilation Perfusion (V/Q Ratio) • Ventilation is the movement of air in and out of the lungs. • Air must reach the alveoli to be available for gas exchange. • Perfusion is the filling of the pulmonary capillaries with blood. • Adequate gas exchange depends upon an adequate V/Q ratio, a match of ventilation and perfusion. • Shunting occurs when there is an imbalance of ventilation and perfusion. This results in hypoxia.

15. V/P

16. Health History • Current Illness • Observe for Respiratory Compromise • Present Health Status, Medical History, Family History, Risk Factors • Lifestyle Questions • Smoking history • Exposure to environmental substances • Exercise • Use of recreational drugs

17. Assessment of Breath Sounds • Normal breath sounds: • Vesicular • Bronchovesicular • Bronchial • Abnormal (adventitious) breath sounds: • Crackles • Wheezes • Friction rubs

18. Age-related Changes • Decrease in elastic recoil of the lung • Loss of skeletal muscle strength in thorax and diaphragm • Fibrosis in the alveoli • Fewer functional capillaries • Less effective cough • Decrease in PO2

19. Lung Capacities • Tidal volume (TV): air volume of each breathe. • Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): maximum volume that can be inhaled after a normal inhalation. • Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): maximum volume that exhaled after a normal exhalation. • Vital capacity (VC): the maximum volume of air exhaled from a maximal inspiration, VC = TV + IRV + ERV. • Forced expiratory volume (FEV): volume exhaled forcefully over time in seconds. Time is indicated as a subscript, usually 1 second.

20. Measurement of Volume and Inspiratory Force • A spirometer measures volumes of air exhaled and is used to assess lung capacities. • When assessing TV, measure several breaths. TV varies from breath to breath. • Pulmonary function tests assess respiratory function and determine the extent of dysfunction. • Peak flow rate reflects maximal expiratory flow and is frequently done by patients using a home spirometer.

21. Inspiratory Force • Evaluates the effort of the patient in making an inspiration. • A monometer which measures inspiratory effort can be attached to a mask or endotracheal tube to occlude the airway and measure pressure. • Normal inspiratory pressure is approximately 100 cm H2O. • Force of less than 25 cm usually requires mechanical ventilation.

22. Arterial Blood Gases • Measurement of arterial oxygenation and carbon dioxide levels. • Used to assess the adequacy of alveolar ventilation and the ability of the lungs to provide oxygen and remove carbon dioxide. • Also assesses acid base balance

23. Pulse Oximetry • A noninvasive method to monitor the oxygen saturation of the blood. • Does not replace ABGs • Normal level is 95-100%. • May be unreliable

24. Pulse Oximeter

25. Diagnostic Tests • Pulmonary function tests • Arterial blood gases • Sputum tests • Chest X-ray • Computerized Tomography (CT) • Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) • Fluoroscopic Studies and Angiography • Radioisotope procedures-Lung Scans

26. Diagnostic Tests • Bronchoscopy • Thoracoscopy • Thoracentesis • Biopsies

27. Fiberoptic Bronchoscopy and Rigid Bronchoscopy

28. Endoscopic Thoracoscopy