EDU702 Research Methodology Quantitative Research

1. EDU702 Research MethodologyQuantitative Research Prepared by Azurawati Binti Wok Zaki 2011313879 ED7701A2

2. Chapter 16:Causal-Comparative Research (Ex post facto Research Non-experimental research)

3. THE AIM to determine the cause of existing differences among groups.

4. Causal-Comparative Research is Differentiated from Experimental Research • In an experiment, the independent variable is manipulated by the researcher. • In causal comparative research the independent has already occurred. • Examples of independent variables include socioeconomic status, pre-school history, number of siblings, and so on.

5. Three types of causal-comparative research

6. Causal- comparative and Correlational Research • Similarities: • researchers explore relationship among variables • seek identify variables that are worthy of later exploration through experimental research. • provide guidance for subsequent experimental studies. • attempt to explore causation

7. Differences:Causal-Comparative vs Correlational

8. Causal-comparative and Experimental Research • Similarities: • - Require at least one categorical variable (group membership). • - Compare group performances (average score) to determine relationship. • - Both typically compare separate group of subjects.

9. Differences: Causal-Comparative vs Experimental

10. Value of Causal Comparative Research • Uncovers relationships to be investigated experimentally. • Used to establish cause-effect when experimental design not possible. • Less expensive and time consuming than experimental research. • Note: if you conduct a quantitative research study it most likely will be a causal-comparative study.

11. More Examples: • How does preschool attendance affect social maturity at the end of the first grade? • How does having a working mother affect a child’s school absenteeism?

12. 1) Problem Formulation 2) Sample 3) Instrumentation 4) Design STEPS TAKEN

13. Threats • Subject Characteristics • - Matching the subjects • - Finding or Creating Homogeneous Subgroups • - Statistical Matching

14. Data Analysis in Causal-Comparative Studies • To construct frequency polygon • Means and standard deviations are usually calculated in the variables involved are quantitative. • The most used test is a t-test for differences between means. • Analysis of covariance is useful. • The results should always be interpreted with caution.

15. Chapter 17:Survey Research The most popular technique for gathering primary data in which a researcher interacts with people to obtain facts, opinions, and attitudes.

16. The Purpose of Survey Research

18. Types of Surveysi) Cross-sectional study • A study in which various segments of a population are sampled. E.g. managers and non-managers. • Data are collected at a single moment in time. • When an entire population is surveyed: Census

19. example • A professor of Mathematics might collect data from a sample of all the high school mathematics teachers in a particular state about their interests in earning a master’s degree in Mathematics from his university.

20. ii) Longitudinal study • Longitudinal survey • - information is collected at different points in time in order to study changes over time.

21. 3 Longitudinal designs

22. Examples: • Trend study: - A researcher might be interested in the attitudes of high school principals towards the use of flexible scheduling. He would select a sample each year from a current listing of high school principals throughout the year. The same individual would not be the sampled each year, he would compare responses from year to year to see whether any trends were apparent.

23. Cohort study • A researcher would like to study growth in teaching effectiveness of all the 1st year teachers who had graduated in the past 5 years from a university. The names of all would be listed, and different sample would be selected from this listing at different times.

24. Panel study • A researcher select a sample of last year’s graduates from a university who are 1st year teachers and survey on the same individual several times during the teaching years.

25. Steps taken Defining the problem - It should be interesting and important to motivate individuals to respond. Identifying the target population

26. Forms of Survey Research Mail Surveys Internet surveys Telephone surveys Personal Interviews

27. COMPARISON OF SURVEY TECHNIQUES Comparison of three kinds of surveys

28. Advantages and Disadvantages

29. Open-Ended Question An interview question that encourages an answer phrased in respondent’s own words. Closed-Ended Question An interview question that asks the respondent to make a selection from a limited list of responses. Questionnaire Design

30. Advantages Disadvantages

31. TYPICAL PROBLEMS IN WORDING QUESTIONS Typical problems in wording questions

32. Respondent Error • A classification of sample bias resulting from some respondent action Non-response -Total Nonresponse

33. Non-response-total nonresponse • Not enough people respond or refuse to respond • NONRESPONDENTS - People who refuse to cooperate • NOT-AT-HOMES • SELF-SELECTION BIAS especially in case of self-administered questionnaire. People respond to only those they like.

34. Item Nonresponse • The respondent may not know the answer to a particular question, the respondent may find the questions embarrassing or irrelevant.

35. The END Thank You