Supporting Materials

Supporting Materials Chapter 15

Supporting Materials • Can be used for clarification or proof • Can be used to support your claims • Can be used as amplification Chapter 15

Define Unfamiliar Words And Concepts A ‘logical definition’ - is a dictionary definition Etymological definitions - root meaning of the word Historical definitions – linked to some historical event Operational definitions – tell how the object works Chapter 15

Definitions Definition by negation – explain what the word is not Definition by Authority – person with most credibility gets to define the term Definition by Example – by pointing at it verbally or literally Chapter 15

Make Frequent Use of Examples • Use factual examples • Are sufficient examples given? • Are the examples representative? • Are negative instances accounted for? • Use hypothetical examples – not factual but it should be a likely or realistic example • Extended • Brief Chapter 15

Examples • Make sure your examples are not biased • Use the appropriate amount of detail • Analyze the amount of detail you need Chapter 15

Use Statistical Evidence • Test the accuracy of statistical evidence • Who collected the data? • Why were the data collected? • When were the data collected? • How were the data collected? Chapter 15

Statistical Evidence • Avoid misleading statistics • The fallacy of average • The fallacy of the unknown base • The fallacy of the atypical or arbitrary time frame • Make your statistics clear and meaningful Chapter 15

Draw on Testimonies from Authorities • Testimonies call on statements from other people to get our point across • Direct quotation • Paraphrase Chapter 15

Evaluate the Credibility of the Authorities You Cite Does the authority have access to the necessary information? Is the authority qualified to interpret data? Chapter 15

Evaluate the Credibility of the Authorities You Cite Is the person acknowledged as an expert on this subject? Is the authority figure free of bias and self-interest? Do not distort quotations Chapter 15

Cite Your Sources Smoothly • Cite the sources of your supporting materials • Use a variety of lead-ins -- a study published in the Journal of Advertising last year said ...’ ‘there was an article in Newsweek magazine early this year that said ... ‘ In an article in the New York Times in 2010 ... Chapter 15

Sample questions...

Definitions, examples, statistics and testimony all fall into what the text calls ----- for your speech. Supporting materials

Which should come first: --selecting evidence / supporting materials -- practicing delivery --setting up the basic structure of your speech--doing an audience analysis --setting up the basic structure of your speech

We refer to supporting materials as --, even though it may be impossible to ever prove a point completely. proof

In helping the audience understand our terms and ideas, a(n) ---- definition is also known as dictionary definition. logical

Reasoning Chapter 16

What is Reasoning? Reasoning is the process by which we come to understand something new, through analyzing and synthesizing what we already know. Sprague Chapter 16 19

What is Reasoning? ** This concept is the foundation for thoroughly developing a thesis...and for an audience’s critical evaluation of the content used to support your thesis. ** Sprague Chapter 16 20

Identify Where Reasoning is Needed to Link Points Evidence can lead to more than one claim People look for familiar patterns Sprague Chapter 16 21

Inductive Reasoning Collecting enough instances to establish a pattern or drawing inferences/conclusions from observations. Sprague Chapter 16 22

Inductive Reasoning Base inferences on sufficient and representative cases Recognize the degree of probability of your claim Demonstrate your cost-rewards analysis Sprague Chapter 16 23

Deductive Reasoning Making verbal statements, or premises, according to formal rules or reasoning from generalizations to specific conclusions. Sprague Chapter 16 24

Deductive Reasoning Finds the patterns in what you already know In a formal deductive syllogism, the major premise sets up an absolute relationship Sprague Chapter 16 25

Deductive Reasoning Probable premises can lead only to probable conclusions Lay out all the premises of a deductive argument Sprague Chapter 16 26

Causal Reasoning Is the backbone of all speeches that deal with policy and problem solving and is reasoning that one cause invariably leads to one effect Sprague Chapter 16 27

Causal Reasoning • Test the validity of your causal relationships • Do the alleged cause and alleged effect occur together? • Do the alleged cause and alleged effect vary together? Sprague Chapter 16 28

Causal Reasoning • Do not simplify the relationship • Some effects have multiple causes • Some cause are also effects • Explain your causal claims fully and fairly Sprague Chapter 16 29

Reasoning by Analogy When we reason by analogy, we compare two things that can be placed in the same category Sprague Chapter 16 30

Reasoning by Analogy Compares two things in the same category Be sure that the two cases are similar Sprague Chapter 16 31

Reasoning by Analogy • Do not confuse a literal analogy with a figurative analogy • Literal analogy compares the members of the same category • Figurative analogy compares the members of different categories Sprague Chapter 16 32

Avoid Common Reasoning Fallacies Ad hominem – attacking the person instead of the argument “Setting up a straw figure” – setting up a poor argument, attributing it to the other side, and refuting it. Sprague Chapter 16 33

Avoid Common Reasoning Fallacies Extending an argument to absurd lengths – goes beyond a reasonable interpretation of the original point Sprague Chapter 16 34

Avoid Common Reasoning Fallacies Slippery slope - false assumptions that if one takes a particular first step then they will automatically take other dangerous steps in the same direction. Sprague Chapter 16 35

Avoid Common Reasoning Fallacies Circular reasoning - assumes as one of its premises the very conclusion it sets out to establish Semantic fallacy – when meanings of word shift mid argument Sprague Chapter 16 36

Avoid Common Reasoning Fallacies False dichotomy – is reasoning based on an either-or statement when the two alternatives are not mutually exclusive Sprague Chapter 16 37

Avoid Common Reasoning Fallacies Faulty reversal of an if-then statement - affirming the consequent or denying the antecedent Sprague Chapter 16 38

Avoid Common Reasoning Fallacies • Hasty generalization - making a premature general conclusion • Confusing sequence with cause • Post hoc fallacy Sprague Chapter 16 39

Show How Your Reasoning Links Your Evidence to Your Claim Organize points to show the logical relationship Select language that shows the logical relationship Sprague Chapter 16 40

When we reason by -------, we compare two things that can be placed in the same category. analogy

Of the four patterns of reasoning, ------- is the simplest and most common, and consists of collecting enough instances to establish a pattern. Inductive reasoning

Among the various ‘reasoning fallacies,’ ----- is attacking the person instead of the argument Ad hominem

Language and Style Chapter 17

Strive for Clear Language Once we have realistic content that is well organized and well supported through good evidence... A good speech pulls the ideas togther through a performance Sprague Chapter 17 45

Think back... • Three communication resources... • Draw on your conversation skills • Relaxed, spontaneous, etc. • Draw on your writing skills • Research and evidence • Draw on your performance skills • Timing, emotional build-up, eye contact Sprague Chapter 17 46

Strive for Clear Language • Be precise • Use the proper word • Don’t misuse your metaphor Sprague Chapter 17 47

Strive for Clear Language Use specific and concrete language Be economical in your language Sprague Chapter 17 48

Use Appropriate Language Adapt your language to the formality of the occasion Use jargon or slang carefully Avoid substandard usage Use language that is respectful and inclusive Remember ‘dialect’ impact Sprague Chapter 17 49

Use Valid Varied Language • Use imagery • Use stylistic devices • Simile and metaphor • Personification • Hyperbole Sprague Chapter 17 50

Supporting Materials