Theories of Infant Development

1. Theories of InfantDevelopment Fogel Chapter 2 Created by Ilse DeKoeyer-Laros

2. Overview Chapter 2 • Biological Approaches • Learning Theories • Cognitive Theories • Systems Theories • Clinical Theories Experiential Exercises

3. What is a Scientific Theory? “a set of concepts that explains the observable world with structures, processes, or mechanisms that are presumed to exist but that cannot be observed directly” (p. 44) • Helps to organize systematic observations, using accepted methods of observation and assessment • Phrased in terms of general principles that can be applied to specific research findings and applications. • Should accurately predict future observations in a majority of cases.

4. Theories of Human Development Focus on describing and predicting the ways in which children change over time & the origin of individual differences

5. Biological Approaches Charles Darwin: natural selection: those who can successfully adapt to the environment will live long enough to reproduce & pass down their characteristics to the next generation • the environment influences which types of characteristics will survive and continue to evolve

6. Biological Approaches Genotype: raw genetic code, made up of DNA molecules • the actions of the genotype are affected by the environment surrounding the genes • this happens via the epigenome – biochemical markers that turn on or off the actions of particular genes within each cell Phenotypes: the products of the genotype-environment interactions • include tissues but also behaviors, intelligence, temperament

7. Biological Approaches the genotype determines the opportunities by which the environment may have an influence on the phenotype

8. Biological ApproachesBehavior Ecology Theory The study of behavior from an evolutionary perspective: all animals have species-specific behaviors that evolved through the process of natural selection

9. Biological ApproachesBehavior Ecology Theory Critical period: limited period of time during which learning can occur that has a permanent and irreversible effect • the first 6 prenatal months (brain & body) • the early years (attachment, language)

10. Biological ApproachesBehavior Genetic Theory the study of possible environmental and genetic explanations for individual differences in behavior and personality characteristics Research compares individuals that vary in their genetics and environments • Genetics: twins (identical vs. fraternal), regular siblings, adopted siblings • Environment: shared or nonshared

11. Biological ApproachesBehavior Genetic Theory • Heritability – the extent to which individual differences are due to genetic factors • the percentage of variability between individuals explained by genetic variability • appr. 30% of the differences between people can be explained by genetic variability • A certain set of genes increases the probability of developing a particular characteristic – but doesn’t determine it

12. Biological ApproachesBehavior Genetic Theory • Often, environmental variability has a larger probability of predicting individual phenotypes than does genetic variability • many genes, each with a small influence • Sometimes, genetic variability between individuals has a larger probability of predicting phenotypes than does environmental variability • e.g., inheriting or not inheriting color blindness genes

13. Problems withBiological Approaches • Harder to apply to phenomena that did not occur in the original “species-typical” environment • Difficult to sort out the relative effects of genetic and environmental variability • Behavior genetics does not tell us anything: • about the probability that a particular individual will inherit a genetic potential or show a characteristic • about the ways in which genes and environment act to produce a phenotype – no guidelines for intervention or for enhancing development

14. Learning Theories • Major contributions: • discovered simple yet powerful ways to enhance learning • have shown that any species can be trained to achieve more than expected by evolutionary models of species-typical behavior • Major types: • Classical conditioning • Operant conditioning • Social Learning Theory

15. Learning TheoriesClassical Conditioning An unconditioned response will occur at a new, conditioned stimulus after repeated exposure to pairing of conditioned & unconditioned stimuli

16. Learning TheoriesOperant Conditioning Operant conditioning: the process by which the frequency of an operant (spontaneous behavior) is controlled by its consequences B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

17. Learning TheoriesOperant Conditioning • Reinforcers – consequences that increase the frequency of the preceding behavior • Positive reinforcer:an action or reward that follows the operant and increases its frequency • Negative reinforcer:the removal of an aversive stimulus increases the frequency of an operant • Punishment – unrewarding consequence that decreases the frequency of an operant • Extinction – the frequency of an operant decreases when a reinforcing consequence is removed

18. Learning TheoriesSocial Learning Theory Social Learning Theory proposes that: • infants come to control not only their behavior but also the behavior of other people around them • entirely new behaviors could be acquired almost immediately through observational learning • the self (including cognitions and motivations) is an intelligent actor and organizer of information Albert Bandura (1925 - )

19. Problems withLearning Theory • Real life is more complex than laboratory! • Many other processes (e.g., genetics) may influence the way behavior is acquired • Cannot explain the sequence and timing of developmental stages • Cannot explain the spontaneous emergence of new behaviors • E.g., stranger anxiety even when children have no experience with strangers, or smiling in blind infants

20. Cognitive Theories • Focus on the mental experience of the person and aim to understand intelligence – how people of different ages know about, perceive, plan, and remember their experiences • Behavior is considered a form of intelligence: • most of what people do is goal directed and depends on knowing what to do in certain circumstances • Types • Constructivist Theory • Information Processing Theories

21. Cognitive TheoriesConstructivist Theory • Intelligence is a form of adaptation to the environment • Knowledge is an active process of co-construction between the knower and what is to be known Jean Piaget (1896–1980)

22. Cognitive TheoriesConstructivist Theory Two principles of biological adaptation: • Assimilation: individuals use their existing abilities in response to challenges from the environment – the application of what one already knows or does to the current situation • Accommodation: the alteration of existing abilities to better fit the requirements of the task or situation Most actions involve both assimilation and accommodation

23. Cognitive TheoriesConstructivist Theory • Piaget’s main goal was to apply his theory to the development of human intelligence – he looked for the origins of intelligence in infancy • First two years of life: sensorimotor substage • explore & learn through movements and senses • main feature: the growth of infants’ understanding of their bodies and how these relate to other things • six substages (see Chapters 5–10)

24. Cognitive TheoriesConstructivist Theory

25. Cognitive TheoriesConstructivist Theory • Individuals play an active role in their own development – motivation for developmental change comes from the experience of disequilibrium • Infants develop knowledge by means of their own actions on the environment– it is constructed • Infants will learn better from experiences that can be assimilated to their current level • schemes: available set of skills and knowledge – sensorimotor or conceptual

26. Problems withConstructivist Theory • Development does not always occur in the stages defined by Piaget • research has shown that certain behaviors may appear earlier than Piaget’s stages suggest that they should (e.g., imitation in newborns) • Piaget did not take into account the effects of adults on infants

27. Cognitive TheoriesInformation-Processing Theories Goal: to specify the way in which the mind handles the information presented by the environment Research usually with sophisticated technology • e.g., to measure such things as visual fixation time, eye movement patterns, auditory sensitivities

28. Problems withInformation-Processing Theory • Few clues about how each component develops – more a theory of how infants act and think than a theory of how action and thought develop • Many different approaches and thousands of research studies – difficult to interpret, especially since there is no broad theoretical framework

29. Systems Theories • Goal: to understand developmental change in the whole child in the whole environment • System:a set of interdependent components, each of which affects the others in reciprocal fashion • Theories include: • Ecological Systems Theory • Interactive Systems Theory • Dynamic Systems Theory

30. Systems Theories Transaction: the process by which systems components affect each other in a bidirectional and reciprocal way Example: Parent: relaxed, attentive, & smiles Infant: smiles

31. Systems Theories Systems have the property of self-organization: organized patterns emerge out of the mutual influences of each component of the system on the others

32. Systems Theories Feedback: components of a system have an effect on their own behavior during their transactions with other components • deviation-correcting feedback (or negative feedback) • deviation-amplifying feedback (or positive feedback)

33. Systems Theories • deviation-correcting feedback maintains a system’s characteristics over time in spite of small deviations Parent: stressed Infant: smiles Parent: relaxed • deviation-amplifying feedback changes a system as a result of a small deviation Parent: stressed Infant: fussy Parent: more stressed Infant: cries more

34. Systems TheoriesEcological Systems Theory The ecology of human development “the study of the progressive, mutual accommodation, throughout the life span, between a growing human organism and the changing immediate environments in which it lives, as the process is affected by relations obtaining within and between those immediate settings, as well as the larger social contexts … in which the settings are embedded” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).

35. Systems TheoriesEcological Systems Theory

36. Systems TheoriesEcological Systems Theory 4 levels of system functioning • Microsystem: all direct relationships between child & environment • Examples: the family, play groups, church groups • Mesosystem: relationships between the microsystems • Example: interaction between family & day care center • Exosystem: social systems that affect (but don’t include) the child • Examples: parents’ work, media, school board • Macrosystem: written & unwritten principles (e.g., beliefs, values, rules) that regulate everyone’s behavior

37. Problems withEcological Systems Theory • Does not specify how these systems affect the child • No guidance concerning which of the ecological factors are most likely to affect a family & under what circumstances • Is not developmental – does not explain how how infants develop from one age to the next

38. Systems TheoriesInteractive Systems Theory Louis Sander: recognized that parent and infant develop together as a system in relationship to each other over time Picture: http://www.ama.ab.ca/cps/rde/xchg/ama/web/insurance_Having-a-Baby-6351.htm

39. Systems TheoriesInteractive Systems Theory Vygotsky: • all individuals are defined by the social group and that knowledge is an active social construction • adults do not directly socialize the child but follow the child’s own motivations to learn • mutual, cooperative transaction is at the heart of Vygotsky’s theory, which is why it is sometimes called sociocultural theory Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)

40. Systems TheoriesInteractive Systems Theory Zone of proximal development: the time during which the next achievement in skill is about to occur but has not occurred yet

41. Systems TheoriesInteractive Systems Theory The concept of the zone of proximal development suggests that children will acquire culturally acceptable practices only if parents can adjust the timing and level of their actions to the ongoing motivational state of the children

42. Systems TheoriesInteractive Systems Theory • Guided participation: the active role that children play while observing and participating in the organized activities of the family/society in the company of adults • Cultural differences • In one study, Mayan mothers maintained adult status level, while U.S. mothers acted more like peers Pictures: http://www.free-toddlers-activity-and-discipline-guide.com/toddlers-activity-free-kids-game.html http://www.wycliffe.org/FeatureStories/DentalRestorationSmilesandSouls.aspx

43. Problems withInteractive Systems Theory • Focuses on short-term developmental changes and does not provide a framework for understanding developmental change • Focuses on parent-infant relationships, or small groups of co-participants, and not on broader issues (e.g., family systems) • research inspired by Vygotsky’s work, however, explicitly focuses on cultural factors and differences

44. Dynamic Systems Theory • How does novelty emerge? Dynamic systems theory gives conceptual & methodological tools to understand this • Ilya Prigogine: interested in phenomena that make their own energy & become increasingly complex by generating novel forms • Self-organization: the ability of systems to maintain themselvesand to develop new forms Ilya Prigogine (1917 - 2003) Picture from Wikipedia.com

45. Dynamic Systems Theory Many dynamic systems display two properties • They form predictable and stable patterns in their macroscopic behavior • They are relatively unpredictable in their microscopic behavior Examples • Seasons are generally expected to occur around the same time each year, but day-to-day weather patterns are hard to predict precisely • Infant development can be described in general stages, an individual infant’s behavior on a given day and pattern of development cannot be predicted

46. Dynamic Systems Theory Chaos:microscopic unpredictability in the context of macroscopic stability Figure 2.7 – trajectory of a mathematical equation that traces a path in 3-dimensional space that is similar on each cycle but never exactly the same

47. Dynamic Systems Theory Dynamic systems theory is unique in that it allows for the possibility of indeterminism • Determinism:all events have a cause, which can be found with enough scientific work • we are unable to predict events in a person’s life because we simply do not have sufficient data • Indeterminism: even if we could measure all the relevant variables, we still could not completely predict future behavior & development • Butterfly effect – avery small perturbation creates unpredictable novelty in a system, which results in macroscopic developmental change in the system

48. Dynamic Systems Theory Self-organization spontaneously creates novelty

49. Dynamic Systems Theory Esther Thelen and Alan Fogel applied dynamic systems theory to explain infant development • Infant development is not entirely predictable from biological, social, or cognitive factors

50. Dynamic Systems Theory • New abilities emerge through the dynamic indeterminacy of self-organization • Thelen: 6-month-olds have all the skills for walking, except for the ability to balance. When this ability develops – by about 10 months – infants walk spontaneously (self-organization) • Fogel: many forms of interpersonal communication are transactional (there is feedback between the participants) and this transaction is characterized by continuous mutual adjustment of action and creativity