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TOXICOLOGY

TOXICOLOGY. FOR ENGLISH SPEAKING STUDENTS. DEFINITION. THE STUDY ABOUT THE NATURE AND MECHANISMS OF CHEMICALS´ EFFECTS ON LIVING ORGANISMUS AND OTHER BIOLOGIC SYSTEMS QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF THE SEVERITY AND FREQUENCY OF SUCH EFFECTS. GOALS FOR PREVENTION. PROTECTION THE PUBLIC HEALTH

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TOXICOLOGY

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  1. TOXICOLOGY FOR ENGLISH SPEAKING STUDENTS

  2. DEFINITION • THE STUDY ABOUT THE NATURE AND MECHANISMS OF CHEMICALS´ EFFECTS ON LIVING ORGANISMUS AND OTHER BIOLOGIC SYSTEMS • QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF THE SEVERITY AND FREQUENCY OF SUCH EFFECTS

  3. GOALS FOR PREVENTION • PROTECTION THE PUBLIC HEALTH • PROTECTION THE WORKERS • HEALTH PROMOTION • DEVELOPMENT OF SAFER CHEMICALS USED AS DRUGS, FOOD ADDITIVES, PESTICIDES, INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS

  4. THE MAIN PREVENTIVE TASK • TO ESTABLISH: • THE ACCEPTABLE DAILY INTAKE = safe level for life-long exposure to the sum of chemicals • THE SAFE LIMITS (HIGHEST TOLERABLE CONCENTRATIONS) • IN WATER, AIR (ambient, indoor), FOODS

  5. SORTS OF TOXICOLOGY • ANALYTICAL • CLINICAL • FORENSIC • OCCUPATIONAL • ENVIRONMENTAL • REGULATORY • CONVENTIONAL, …

  6. SCOPES OF TOXICOLOGY • MEDICINE: diagnosis, prevention, treatment • FOOD INDUSTRY: additives • AGRICULTURE: pesticides, growth regulators, animal food additives, veterinary drugs • INDUSTRY

  7. EPIDEMIES OF POISONING • POMPEII – VESUVE, DUST, SO2, • SMOG REDUCTIVE (dust, CO, PAH): Donora, London • SMOG OXIDATIVE (O3, NOx, CO2 hydrocarbons): Los Angeles

  8. EPIDEMIES - continue • MINAMATA, NIIGATA, IRAQ, USA - METHYLMERCURY • ITAI-ITAI - CADMIUM • YUSHO, YUCHENG - PCBs • MITCHIGAN – PBBs • SEVESO – PCDD (TCDD) • BHOPALE - METHYLISOCYANATE

  9. September 11, 2001 - NY • DISSEMINATION OF CHEMICALS as: • ASBEST, PAH • HEAVY METALS (Cd, Pb, Hg, Cr, …) • CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS (PCB, PCDD, PCDF…) • ORGANIC SOLVENTS • OTHERS (HCN, CS2 , H2S,…)

  10. ROUTES OF INTAKE • GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT • RESPIRATORY TRACT • SKIN • VAGINA, RECTUM, EAR, EYES • PARENTERAL APPLICATION

  11. TYPES OF UPTAKE • PASSIVE DIFUSSION • FILTRATION • CARRIER-MEDIATED TRANSPORT • ENGULFING BY THE CELLS (pinocytosis)

  12. BARRIERS • MUCOCILLIAL CLEARANCE • SKIN „FILM“ (ACID and FATTY) • RATE OF ABSORPTION • PLACENTAL (fetus protection) • CEREBROVASCULAR (brain protection)

  13. BIOTRANSFORMATION • The main influencing factor: • WATER / LIPO – SOLUBILITY • WATER – SOLUBILE => EXCRETION WITHOUT METABOLISATION • POLARIC = > AFTER CONJUGATION • LIPO-SOLUBILE => 2 STEPS METABOLISM

  14. Ist STEP /PHASE • OXIDATION, REDUCTION, HYDROLYSIS • CATALYTIC MICROSOMAL ENZYMES • METABOLITES DEVELOPED BY OXIDATION ARE BOTH LESS AND MORE ACTIVE THAN THE MATERNAL COMPOUND • DUE TO OXYGEN / FREE RADICALS

  15. OXIDATIVE BIOTRANSFORMATION • MICROSOMAL ENZYMES – COMPLEX of • CYTOCHROM P450 • GENETIC DIFFERENCES IN GENOTYPE – GENETIC POLYMORPHISM

  16. CYTOCHROM P450 • ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE ON FENOTYPE: • SOME DRUGS, DDT, PCBs, PCDDs, chemicals in VEGETABLES • CAN INDUCE THE RELEASE OF OXIDATIVE ENZYMES P450

  17. CYTOCHROM P 450 – exampl. • CYP 1A1: lungs, placenta PAH • CYP 1A2: liver AFLATOXINS, NITROSAMINES • CYP 2A6: lungs, liver, … NITROSAMINES, NICOTINE CYP 1B1, 2C9,2C19, 2D6, 2E1, 3A…

  18. 2nd STEP / PHASE • CONJUGATION: • GLUCURONIDES FORMATION: the most important and common way, • Catalyzing enzymes: • UDP- GLUCURONYL TRANSPHERASEs: • Aliphatic and aromatic alcohols, amines, sulfhydryl compounds, …

  19. 2 nd STEP /PHASE • GLUTATHIONE FORMATION • Enzymes GLUTATHION-S-TRANSPHERASEs: • Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons • ACETYLATION: enzymes N-ACETYL TRANSPHERASEs: SLOW/FAST ACETYLATORS

  20. 2nd STEP /PHASE • SULPHATES FORMATION – enzymes SULPHOTRANSPHERASES • METHYLATION • GENETIC POLYMORPHISM: • „HAPPY“ / „UNHAPPY“ PEOPLE

  21. POLYMORPHISM IN PRACTICE • VULNERABILITY TO: • INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS, • DRUGS • DEPENDENCE (nicotine) • ETHICAL PROBLEMS

  22. EXCRETION OF CHEMICALS • URINARY, BILIARY • EXPIRATED AIR • SALIVA • EVAPORATION • SKIN ADNEXES (HAIR, NAILS) • MOTHER´S MILK, FOLLICULAR FLUID, EJACULATE

  23. DEPOTS • TARGET ORGANS • FATTY TISUE • BONE • TEETH

  24. TESTs OF EXPOSURE • LEVELS OF THE SUBSTANCE or IT´S SPECIFIC METABOLITE: CO in the expirated air, cotinine, BaP DNA adducts • LEVELS OF NON-SPECIFIC METABOLITES: urinary glucuronides, thioethers

  25. TESTs OF EXPOSURE • ASSESSMENT OF THE ORGANISM´S RESPONSE: anemia in the Pb chronic exposure, Chromosomal aberations in the exposure to mutagens • ASSESSMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL VULNERABILITY: genetic polymorphism in induction of microsomal enzymes, sexual /ethnic /age differences

  26. SPECTRUM OF EFFECTS • LOCAL x SYSTEMIC • REVERSIBLE x IRREVERSIBLE • IMMEDIATE x DELAYED • MORPHOLOGIC x FUNCTIONAL x BIOCHEMICAL • ALLERGIC x IDIOSYNCRATIC

  27. SPECTRUM OF EFFECTS • IRRITATION, INFLAMATION • TOXICITY (according to the target organ): hemato-, hepato-, neuro-, nephro-, cardio-, … • EMBRYOTOXICITY • TERRATOGENICITY • MUTAGENICITY • CARCINOGENICITY

  28. EPIGENETIC EFFECTS • NON-MUTAGENIC CHANGES OF PHENOTYPE • ON MOLECULAR BASIS INVOLVES: • DNA-methylation, • ALTERATION OF miRNAs, piwiRNAs, longRNAs • MODIFICATION OF HISTONE

  29. MECHANISMS of ACTION: • CELLs PROLIFERATION, • ANTI-APOPTOSIS • REVASCULARISATION of TUMOROUS TISSUE and METASTASES • LOWER CELLs ADHERENCE • HORMONAL DYSRUPTORS • PROMOTION of P450 ENZYMEs RELEASE

  30. DIFFICULTIES IN RESEARCH • EXTRAPOLATION from the ANIMAL EXPERIMENTS to the HUMAN REALITY • DOSE – RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP • THE (upper) LIMITS FOR THE PHYSIOLOGIC RESPONSE • INTERACTION OF CHEMICALS IN MIXTURES

  31. ANTI-CHEMICAL DEFENSE • CONTINUAL EXCHANGE/REPLACEMENT OF DAMAGED CELLS IN GATES • INDUCTION OF DETOXIFYING BIOTRANSFORMATION • ACTIVE EXCRETION OF HYDRO-SOLUBLE SUBSTANCES • DNA REPAIR

  32. IS THE NATURE SAFE? • DEFENSE HAS DEVELOPED IN THE EVOLUTION DUE TO EXPOSURE TO NATURAL CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS • ALL SURVIVE PLANTS HAVE DEVELOPED THEIR PROTECTION AGAINST THEIR NATURAL ENEMIES = NATURAL PESTICIDES

  33. NATURAL PESTICIDES • ARE CHEMICALY SIMILAR TO THOSE PRODUCED BY INDUSTRY • SOME OF THEM ARE STRONG TOXINS AND CARCINOGENS (botulotoxine, aflatoxine) • PLANTS CAN CHANGE both the CONCENTRATIONS and the SORT

  34. TOO MANY RHODENT CARCINOGENS • There were tested more than • 1000 INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS and • 50 NATURAL CHEMICALS • In both groups, about • 50% are RHODENT CARCINOGENS

  35. EXPERIMENTAL TESTS • The MAXIMAL TOLERATED DOSES, and their fractions (1/2 ¼) ARE USED • WHICH MATHEMATIC MODEL OF EXTRAPOLATION FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE IS THE BEST? • LINEAR? EXPONENTIAL? • DOES THE SAFE TRESHOLD EXISTS?

  36. EPIDEMIOLOGIC/CLINIC STUDIES • ARE ONLY ACCEPTABLE FOR HUMAN RISK ASSESSMENT = > • CHEMICAL ACCIDENTS and DISASTERS ARE ASSESSED IN LONGITUDINAL PROSPECTIVE STUDIES • Also PROFESSIONAL EXPOSURES are the sources of IMPORTANT DATA

  37. CARCINOGENS´ CLASSIFICATION • CATEGORIES HUMAN / ANIMAL DATA • HUMAN C. 1A suffic. suffic./limited • PROBABLE 2A limited sufficient • POSSIBLE 2B inadeq. suffic/limited • NO-CLASSIF. 3 absent inadeq/absen • NOT CARCIN.4 absent negative in 2 species

  38. CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS • OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES RISE THE MAJOR CONCERN OF RESEARCHES: • GENOTOXIC THEORY OF CARCINOGENESIS: INITIATION of DNA MUTAGENIC CHANGES – REPLICATION – PROMOTION – MANIFESTATION • EPIGENETIC (non-mutagenic) THEORY

  39. WHAT DO WE KNOW? • WE CAN MEASURE THE MUTAGENICITY (Ames´s test) AND RESPONSE (Chromosomal abberations, sister chromatide exchanges, DNA adducts…) • THERE ARE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SHORT-TERM MARKERS and CANCER INCIDENCE • CELLs PROLIFERATION IS IMPORTANT

  40. WHAT WE DON´T KNOW? • WHICH MODEL FOR EXTRAPOLATION IS THE MOST PRECIOUS ? • WHICH IS THE ROLE OF NATURAL CHEMICALS and CONDITIONS ? • WHICH SIGNALS OF RESPONSE ON EXPOSURE ARE IMPORTANT FOR USE THEM TO ESTABLISH THE ACCEPTABLE LIMITS ?

  41. POLITICAL POINT OF VIEW: • TO KEEP LIMITS IN MORE DIFFICULT THAN TO ESTABLISH THEM • HOW MANY VULNERABLE PEOPLE WE WILL PROTECT BY THE LIMITS • CAN WE ACCEPT SOME SPECIFIC PROTECTION OF VULNERABLE PART OF POPULATION

  42. ENVIRONMENTAL HYSTERY • VERY OFTEN ENHANCES THE PUBLIC INTEREST ABOUT LOW-RISK FACTORS (sacharin, DDT, PBCs, Alar, …) • AND • OBSCURES / UNDERESTIMATES THE REAL RISKS (nutrition, smoking, poor hygiene, …)

  43. ALL CANCER MORTALITY: • ATTRIBUTIVE RISK IN LIFE STYLE • NUTRITION …………………… 35% • SMOKING ……………………… 30% • INFECTIOUS AGENTS …….. 10% • SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR ………. 7% • ALCOHOL ………………………. 4% • TOGETHER ……………………. 87%

  44. ALL CANCER MORTALITY • ATTRIBUTIVE RISK IN ENVIRONMENT • OCCUPATION …………………… 4% • MEDICAL TREATMENT ………. 3% • GEOPHYSICAL FACTORS ……. 3% • POLLUTED AIR, WATER …….. 2% • FOOD ADDITIVES/CONTAM. . <1% • TOGETHER ………………………. 13%

  45. CONCLUSSIONS • TOXICOLOGY IS DYNAMIC, EXCITATING SCIENCE • TOXICOLOGY CAN DISCOVER MANY MYSTERIOUS THINGS IN LIFE • TOXICOLOGY CAN REDUCE HUMAN CHEMOPHOBIA

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