Cell Theory

1. Cell Theory • The cell is the basic unit of _______in living organisms • All organisms are made of ________ cells • All cells ________ from other cells • There are two types of cells: ___________ (small, simple, no nucleus, single chromosome, bacteria) and ___________ (nucleus, “typical” cell, anything other than bacteria) life prokaryotes 1 or more eukaryotes come cells tissue organs organ system organism Examples?

2. Match The Following Terms

3. Animal Cell Nuclear Membrane Mitochondria Cytoplasm Golgi Apparatus Rough ER Cell Membrane Smooth ER Nucleus Ribosomes

4. Plant Cell Nuclear Membrane Cell Wall Cell Membrane Golgi Apparatus Ribosomes Mitochondria Vacuole Nucleus Cytoplasm Lysosome Smooth ER Nucleolus Chloroplast Rough ER

5. Energy Transformation • Law of Conservation of Matter: During an ordinary chemical change, there is no detectable change in the _________ of matter • Law of Conservation of Energy: energy cannot be _________ or _________, but can change in form • Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids are the organic macromolecules. They are composed of __________ and ___________ with additional elements and are the building blocks of all living things. amount created destroyed carbon hydrogen

6. Organic Macromolecules Disaccharide polypeptide DNA/RNA support energy hereditary energy Rice, bread, potatoes Meat, cheese, beans Butter, oil Meat, fruit, vegetables

7. Ecology • Matter and energy change forms by means of food chains and food webs (a series of interconnected food chains). • Producers come first in a food chain. Producers are also called __autotrophs___ and include plants and other organisms that make their own food (usually through a process known as __photosynthesis_______________). • Consumers (or _heterotrophs__) are shown in the order in which they consume their food or prey. Consumers can obtain their food through __predation___ or __scavenging___. • Decomposers are organisms that break down dead organisms and allow nutrients to be recycled. They come last in a food chain. • Example of a food chain:

8. Ecology Ecology is the study of the interaction among organisms and between organisms and their environment. • Levels of ecological organization: • The environment is made up of living components (_biotic_ factors) and nonliving components (__abiotic__ factors) • Organisms that live closely with other organisms are in a symbiotic relationship.  • Mutualism a. one organism benefits while the other is harmed • Commensalism b. both organisms benefit • Parasitism c. one organism benefits while the other is neither helped nor harmed

9. Biomes habitat niche succession Draw a food web and label the different levels (producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer, tertiary consumer)

10. DNA • Genetics is the scientific study of ___heredity__, or the passing of traits from parents to offspring. • Traits are passed by means of _genes_, or deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA contains segments called __codons_ which code for certain __proteins___. These proteins control the traits of an organism. • More about DNA: • DNA makes up the _chromosomes___ that are found in the nucleus of a cell. • DNA is a type of nucleic acid. • Its shape is a twisted ladder, or a _double helix____. • DNA is made up of sugars and phosphates (the side of the “ladder”) and pairs of nitrogen bases (the steps of the “ladder”). The bases in DNA are called adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. __A_ always bonds with _T__ and _C__ always bonds with _G__. • Any change in the base sequence of DNA is known as a _mutation____. Mutations can lead to a change in the protein that is coded for by the affected gene. This change can lead to certain disorders like sickle-cell anemia.

11. Genetics

12. Mitosis & Meiosis • MITOSIS • Produces _identical_ genetic copies • 1 cell copies its DNA and organelles and then splits into_2_ cells • Occurs for the purposes of growth and repair or asexual reproduction • Happens in body cells • Consists of Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophse • MEIOSIS • Produces _gametes___ or sex cells (sperm and egg) for sexual reproduction • 1 cell copies its DNA and splits into __4_ cells during two cell divisions • Each of the resulting gametes is __different__ from the starting cell and from each other • The end cells have ½ the amount of DNA as the starting cell • Happens in cells of the testes and ovaries only • Consists of Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I, Prophase II,

13. Natural Selection • Natural Selection • Idea first stated by __Charles Darwin_______ • “Survival of the __fittest______” • Organisms that are best ___suited_____to their environment are more likely to live long enough to produce offspring and pass their traits on to the next generation.

14. Evolution • Change in groups of organisms over a long period of time • Evidence for evolutionary changes • Fossils (The deeper the fossil, the _older__ it is) • Comparative anatomy and the study of _homologous___ structures (Example: human arm, dolphin fin, bat wing, dog foreleg) • Comparative _biochemistry__ (The fewer the differences in DNA, the closer the organisms are related) • Comparative __embryology__ (Example: all vertebrates have gill slits, tail, and notochord in early development) • __direct___ evidence (Example: bacteria can quickly become resistant to antibiotics)

15. Life • Characteristics of Living Things • Reproduce • Grow • Develop • Need food and require energy • Made of cell(s) • Respond to environment • As a group, evolve over time • Homeostasis is an organism’s ability to maintain a _stable internal environment__

16. Photosynthesis and Cell Respiration • Respiration • Process of using energy from sugar (glucose) to produce __energy__ • C6H12O6 +6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP • Occurs in ___mitochondria______ • Occurs in all living organisms • ATP provides energy to do work in the cell • When ATP is used, it is converted to __ADP__, releasing energy • Photosynthesis • Process of using energy from the sun to produce __sugar__(glucose) • 6CO2 + 6H2O + Light Energy  C6H12O6 +6O2 • Occurs in _chloroplasts____of plants and some algae (autotrophs) • How are photosynthesis and respiration related?

17. Proteins • Protein Synthesis • Transcription • _copying___ information from DNA to mRNA • mRNA then transported from DNA in the nucleus to a _ribosome__ • Translation • Information in mRNA used to construct specific sequence of amino acids • Information is translated from language of nucleotides to the language of amino acids • _tRNA___carries amino acids to ribosomes where they are linked together

18. Cell Transport • Active Transport- requires ATP (energy); particles move from a __lower__ to _higher__ concentration • Endocytosis – into cell • Exocytosis- out of cell • Passive Transport- does not require ATP (energy); particles move from a _higher_ to _lower__ concentration; works to result in dynamic equilibrium • Diffusion- movement of particles down a concentration gradient • Osmosis- movement of ___water___ through a semi-permeable membrane • Facilitated diffusion- movement of particles down a concentration gradient through the use of a transport protein

19. States of Matter • Matter is anything that has __mass____ and takes up __space___. • Matter is composed of units known as _elements__. Elements are substances that are made up of only one kind of atom and that cannot be broken down by ordinary means such as heating, cooling, or crushing. • A substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined, such as H2O, is known as a __compound___. • The states of matter are the characteristic forms of all substances: • __solid__-matter that has a definite shape and volume • __liquid___-matter that has a definite volume, but takes the shape of its container • _gas__-matter that has no definite shape and no definite volume; it fills its container

20. Chemistry • A __mixture__ is a combination of two or more kinds of matter that can be separated; there are 2 kinds of mixtures: • Homogeneous- a mixture that is the same throughout • Heterogeneous-a mixture with an unequal composition throughout • A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances is known as a ___solution__. It has two parts: 1. the _solvent__, which is the substance that is doing the dissolving, and 2. the __solute__, the substance that is being dissolved • Physical properties are characteristics of a substance that can be observed with the senses. Examples include: hardness, color • Chemical properties are characteristics of a substance that describe how the substance reacts with other substances. Examples: oxidation

21. Atoms • The _atom_ is the smallest unit of an element; all matter is composed of atoms

22. Atoms • An atom that has gained or lost an electron is known as a __ion__. These have positive or negative charges. • __isotopes___ are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. • The Periodic Table • Atomic number identifies the element and tells the number of _protons___ in an element. • Atomic mass is the average mass of one atom of that element in atomic mass units. • Mass number is the number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus.

23. Chemistry Matching

24. Bonding • Most atoms need 8 valence (outer) electrons to become stable. This is known as the __octet__ rule. • Ionic bonds are chemical bonds that result from the _transfer__ of an electron. • Ionic compounds contain an ionic bond; these compounds are electrically charged • Covalent bonds are chemical bonds that results from the __sharing__ of an electron. • Covalent compounds contain a covalent bond and are also known as _molecules__.

25. Physical and Chemical Changes • A physical change occurs when there is a change in the __physical___ property of a substance. This type of change does not change the original substance into something else. Includes: • Dissolving • Melting • Freezing • Examples • A chemical change occurs when there is a _rearrangement__ of atoms that makes or breaks chemical bonds. This forms a different substance. Includes: • Combustion • Fermentation • Electrolysis • Rusting/ oxidation • Tarnishing • Examples

26. Chemical Reactions • A chemical reaction is the process by which the atoms of one or more substances are __changed__ to form different substances. • Reactants yield product(s). • A__catalyst__ is a substance that can speed up the rate of a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy but is not itself consumed in the reaction. • A chemical equation is a statement using chemical formulas to describe the identities and relative amounts of the reactants and products involved in the chemical reaction. • Remember the Law of Conservation of Matter: matter is neither __created__ nor __destroyed___. Chemical equations should be balanced.

27. Chemical Reaction • Chemical reactions always involve a change in energy. But remember that energy is neither created nor destroyed. • Chemical reactions in which energy is absorbed are _endergonic____. Energy is required for the reaction to occur. • Chemical reactions in which energy is released are __exergonic___. The energy that is released was originally stored in the chemical bonds of the reactants. Often the heat give off causes the product(s) to feel hot.

28. Solutions • Solutions are ____homogenous___ mixtures of two or more substances. • Solutions are composed of two parts: • The __solvent____ does the dissolving. • The ___solute___ is dissolved. • Solubility is the amount of solute that will __dissolve__ in a given amount of solvent at a given temperature

29. Solutions • There are three types of solutions: • In an _unsaturated__ solution, more solute can be added at a certain temperature and still dissolve. • In a _saturated__ solution, the maximum amount of solute at a given temperature is able to dissolve (if more solute is added, it will settle out). • In a _supersaturated__ solution, more solute has been added than the solvent can typically hold at a certain temperature because the solution was heated up and then allowed to cool slowly. A supersaturated solution contains more solute than it would if the dissolved solute were in equilibrium with the undissolved solute.

30. Acids and Bases • High concentrations of H+ ions indicate an __acidic__ solution. • High concentrations of OH- ions indicated a _basic_ (or alkaline) solution. • Equal concentrations of H+ and OH- ions in the same solution indicates a _neutral__ solution. • pH is the measure of hydronium ion concentration in a solution.

31. Acids and Bases sour bitter Below 7 Above 7 • Acid rain is rain that is more acidic than normal rain due to the addition of _nitric and sulfuric acid___. Acid rain has a pH less than _5.5_. The precursors of acid rain formation can result from both natural sources (such as volcanoes and decaying vegetation) and man-made sources (primarily emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide resulting from the burning of fossil fuels)