Testing and Individual Differences

1. Testing and Individual Differences AP Psychology

2. Big Questions: • 1. What is intelligence? • 2. How should it be measured?

3. Lesson One: Objectives • By the end of this lesson, I will be able to: • 1. Explain how psychologists design tests, including standardization strategies and other techniques to establish reliability and validity.

4. Introduction: • Tests are a part of your everyday life. Some of them even help decide your future choices (ACT) • Questions: • What makes a good test? • How do we make sure the test in reliable? • How do we make sure the test is valid? • Why is this important?

5. Standardization and Norms: • Psychometrics – the measurement of mental traits, abilities, and processes. • A psychometrician would develop tests that would measure some construct or behavior that distinguished people • You can’t measure honesty or happiness in feet or meters, so we need other methods of measurement.

6. Psychological Tests: • Test abilities, interests, creativity, personality, and intelligence. • Questions that everyone answer correctly or incorrectly are thrown out – not specific enough • So, what does a good test look like?

7. Good Tests: • Standardized, reliable, and valid • Standardization – established test norms from a large representative sample and they are scored the same way • Standardized tests are written, edited, pretested, and re-written.

8. How Do We Establish Norms? • Established from the test results of representative samples • They are then used for subsequent test takers • Then you can compare the scores of all test takers

9. What Makes A Good Test - Reliability • If a test is reliable, we should obtain the same score no matter where, when, or how many times we take it • Types of Reliability: • 1. test-retest – take the test 2X (familiarity) • 2. Split half- compare evens and odds • 3. Alternative form – different versions are compared • Note – if the same people took both exams and got the same score = high interrater reliability

10. What Makes A Good Test: Validity • Validity – is the test measuring or predicting what it’s supposed to? • Example: Class test that doesn’t test what you’ve talked about in class • Five types of validity: • 1. Face • 2. Content • 3. Criterion • 4. Predictive • 5. Construct

11. Face Validity: • Face validity – a measure of the extent to which the content of the test measures all of the knowledge or skills that are supposed to be included on the test- According to the test takers • Example: You expect that 8-10% of the Cognition material should be on the AP Test

12. Content Validity: • Content Validity – same as face validity except “according to the experts.” • Example: Tests are completed by experts and sample populations to make sure that they are measuring what they are supposed to

13. Criterion Related Validity: • Criterion Related Validity – How does the test correlate with other tests being given? • Example: Do AP class tests compare to the AP Psych test?

14. Predictive Validity: • Predictive Validity – Does the test predict future success? • Example: High ACT = success in college

15. Construct Validity: • Construct Validity – Does the test measure the specific construct / behavior it is supposed to? • This is arguably the most important type of validity

16. Types of Tests: • There are three types of tests we will be looking at in this chapter: • 1. Performance • 2. Observational • 3. Self-report

17. Performance Tests: • Performance tests – the test taker knows what they should do in response to questions or tasks on the test • Examples: ACT, SAT, Midterm, Finals • Types: • 1. Speed – how many can you answer correctly in a short period of time • 2. Power – how many can you answer (varying difficulty) – no time/large limit

18. Observational Tests: • Observational tests – person being tested does not have a single, well defined task to perform • Instead, they’re assessed on typical behavior or performance in a specific context • Examples: employment interviews, on the job observations or evaluations

19. Self Report Tests: • Self-report test – requires the test taker to describe his/her feelings, attitudes, beliefs, mental state, etc. on a survey or poll

20. Ability, Interest, and Personality Tests: • Aptitude tests – designed to predict a person’s future performance or capacity to learn (SAT) • Achievement tests – designed to assess what a person has already learned (AP Psychology Test)

21. Group vs. Individual Test: • Group tests – Mass testing (low cost) • Individual tests – individual tests with an examiner • NOTE: Psychologist must be careful when administering these tests (trust is an issue)

23. The APA and Testing: • The APA has specific guidelines detailing appropriate technical and professional standards for: • 1. Construction of tests • 2. Evaluation of tests • 3. Interpretation of tests • 4. Application of tests

24. Why Do They Take These Measures? • 1. Promote the welfare and best interest of the client • 2. Guard against the misuse of assessment results • 3. Respect the client’s right to know the results • 4. Safeguard the dignity of test takers

25. History of Testing and Ethics: • Some groups, over time, have scored lower on intelligence tests and other standardized tests (ACT’s) • Critics have argued that these tests are culturally biased • Culture Relevant Tests – questions are based on cultural experiences of the specific test takers. Click the Pic!!!

26. How do you define intelligence? • Intelligence – the capacity of an individual to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with their environment. • Behaviors that indicate intelligence: • 1. ability to learn from experience • 2. ability to solve problems • 3. ability to use information to adapt to the environment • 4. ability to benefit from training

27. History of Intelligence Tests: • Francis Galton – Measurement of Psychosocial Performance (Darwin’s cousin) • He believed that people with excellent physical abilities are better adapted for survival  highly intelligent

28. Francis Galton: cont. • How did he measure this? • 1. Strength • 2. Reaction time • 3. Sensitivity to pain • 4. Weight discrimination • Problem: How does this correlate with reasoning ability?

29. Alfred Binet’s Measurement of Judgment: • Binet believed that we answer questions differently depending on our age. • He assigned children with a “mental age” – this reflects the age at which children typically give similar responses • Problem: a 6 year old and an 8 year old each 2 years behind would be proportionally different (6 year old would be further behind)

30. Mental Age and Intelligence Quotient: • Lewis Terman – Stanford-Binet intelligence scale • The result of this test = your IQ • MA / CA X 100 • You take a test – Mental age • How old are you? – Chronological age • Multiply X 100 = your IQ • Present tests are standardized with age groups up to 90 years old

31. Newest Version of Stanford-Binet: • Assess five ability areas: • 1. Knowledge • 2. Fluid reasoning • 3. Quantitative reasoning • 4. Verbal Reasoning • 5. Non verbal reasoning

32. Wechsler Intelligence Scale: • David Wechsler has developed three age based intelligence tests: • 1. WPPSI – Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence • 2. WISC – Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children • 3. WAIS – Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

33. More About Wechsler: • WAIS III (adults and adolescents) – latest edition that tests: • 1. Vocabulary • 2. Similarities • 3. Object assembly • 4. Block design • 5. Picture arrangement and completion • Results are based on deviations (IQ score) • 68% of the population will have an IQ score between 85 and 115

34. History of Mental Retardation: • The Romans used people with MR as forms of amusement • This practice started to fade with the introduction of Christianity throughout Europe • In 1876, the American Association on Mental Retardation was formed – studied cases of MR • Most cases of MR result from chromosomal abnormalities (down syndrome) • The other cases usually involved head trauma

35. Mental Retardation: • MR or Cognitively Delayed ranges from mild  profound • Each level of MR requires different levels of assistance • The vast majority of MR cases are mild (85%)

36. Mild Retardation: (85%) • Between 50-70 IQ • Can usually care for themselves and their homes • Can achieve a 6th grade education • Can become an adequate parent (I am Sam) • Are often mainstreamed into regular education classroom (integration) • How do you feel about mainstreaming?

37. Moderately Retarded: (10%) • Between 35-49 IQ • Can achieve a 2nd grade education • Need to be given training for personal skills (hygiene, dressing, etc.) • Need training to be able to do basic tasks or jobs

38. Severely Retarded: (3-4%) • Between 20-34 IQ • Limited vocabulary • Limited self-care skills • Need assistance with most things • Very basic education

39. Profoundly Retarded: (1-2%) • IQ below 20 • Require full time care • Many live in group homes • There has been a push for deinstitutionalization – out of group homes and into regular homes with their families • Problem – Some families are unable to take care of them (as they get older)

40. Savants: • Savants – individuals that are otherwise considered mentally retarded, have a specific, exceptional skill usually in art, music, or calculation (about half are autistic) • Example: Raymond Babbitt (Rainman) • Knows 7600 books by heart • Knows all US area codes, Zip codes, and Tv stations

41. Kinds of Intelligence: • Is there one underlying capacity for intelligence or are there different ways to be intelligent? • Charles Spearman – he believed (using factor analysis) that one important factor (g) – general factor- underlies all intelligence. • (s) – less important specialized abilities

42. Another Opinion: Louis Thurstone • Louis Thurstone – Disagreed with Spearman and came up with seven distinct factors he called – Primary Mental Abilities. • Inductive reasoning, word fluency, perceptual speed, verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, numerical ability, and associate memory.

43. Another Opinion: John Horn and Raymond Cattrell • Believed that Spearman’s (g) should be divided into two factors of intelligence • Fluid intelligence – cognitive abilities requiring speed or rapid learning (diminish with age) • Crystallized intelligence – learned knowledge and skills that tend to increase with age. (vocab)

44. Multiple Intelligences: Howard Gardner • Howard Gardner– critic of (g) approach • Believed that there are 8 approaches to intelligence • 3 are measured on traditional intelligence tests • 5 are not usually measured on any standardized test • He believed that these abilities represent ways that people process information differently in the world.

46. Robert Sternberg: Triarchic Theory of Intelligence • Robert Sternberg: Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: • 1. Analytic – What is tested by traditional intelligence tests • 2. Creative – How we adapt to tough situations (threshold theory – we need a certain amount of intelligence to be creative but it is not the only thing we need) • 3. Practical – “streetsmarts” – ability to read and perceive people, figure out directions, etc.

47. Emotional Intelligence: • Peter Salovey and John Mayer – combines Gardner’s inter and intrapersonal approaches • Uses MEIS – Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale • Tests the person’s ability to perceive, understand, and reguate emotions • EQ – Emotional Quotient

48. Food For Thought: • Is it better to have a high IQ or high EQ? • Does it depend on what you will be doing with you life?

49. Concluding Thought: • Psychologists, educators, and Psychometricians agree that intelligence tests measure the ability to take tests well • They do not agree that all intelligence tests actually measure intelligence. • Do you agree with them?

50. Nature vs. Nurture….again • To what extent is intelligence innate / learned? • Can intelligence be improved with practice or education? • The Head Start Program – has been shown to decrease children’s placement in special education classes. • Critics argue that these gains are short lived and that the student’s real deficiencies appear over time.