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How the TCP/IP Protocol Works

How the TCP/IP Protocol Works. Les Cottrell – SLAC Lecture # 1 presented at the 26 th International Nathiagali Summer College on Physics and Contemporary Needs, 25 th June – 14 th July, Nathiagali, Pakistan.

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How the TCP/IP Protocol Works

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  1. How the TCP/IP Protocol Works Les Cottrell – SLAC Lecture # 1 presented at the 26th International Nathiagali Summer College on Physics and Contemporary Needs, 25th June – 14th July, Nathiagali, Pakistan Partially funded by DOE/MICS Field Work Proposal on Internet End-to-end Performance Monitoring (IEPM), also supported by IUPAP

  2. Overview • This is not a lecture on how to program TCP/IP, rather an introduction to how major portions works • IP • Addressing: IP addresses, ARP, routing • ICMP • UDP • TCP: flow control, error recovery, establishment, diconnect • References: • “Internetworking with TCP/IP, volume I, principles, protocols & Architecture”, by Douglas Comer • “TCP/IP Illustrated: the protocols”, by W. Richard Stevens • Most information also available free via Web searches

  3. Internet Protocol (IP RFC-791) TCP/IP Internet provides 3 layers of service Transport Services Application services Connectionless packet delivery service • Layering allows one to replace one service without affecting others • IP layer (basic unit of transfer in TCP/IP) provides: • Best-effort (does not discard capriciously), unreliable (no guarantees) • Packet may be lost, duplicated, out-of-order with no notification • Connectionless (each packet treated independently) • IP software provides routing

  4. Internet datagram • Basic transfer unit • Format of Internet datagram Datagram header Datagram data area 0 4 8 16 19 24 31 Vers Hlen Type of serv. Total length Identification Flags Fragment offset TTL Protocol Header Checksum Source IP address Destination IP address IP Options (if any) Padding Data …

  5. IP datagram format (cont.) • Vers (4 bits): version of IP protocol (IPv4=4) • Hlen (4 bits): Header length in 32 bit words, without options (usual case) = 20 • Type of Service – TOS (8 bits): little used in past, now being used for QoS • Total length (16 bits): length of datagram in bytes, includes header and data • Time to live – TTL (8bits): specifies how long datagram is allowed to remain in internet • Routers decrement by 1 • When TTL = 0 router discards datagram • Prevents infinite loops • Protocol (8 bits): specifies the format of the data area • Protocol numbers administered by central authority to guarantee agreement, e.g. TCP=6, UDP=17 …

  6. IP Datagram format (cont.) • Source & destination IP address (32 bits each): contain IP address of sender and intended recipient • Options (variable length): Mainly used to record a route, or timestamps, or specify routing

  7. IP Fragmentation • How do we send a datagram of say 1400 bytes through a link that has a Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU) of say 620 bytes? • Answer the datagram is broken into fragments • Router fragments 1400 byte datagrams • Into 600 bytes, 600 bytes, 200bytes (note 20 bytes for IP header) • Routers do NOT reassemble, up to end host Net 1 MTU=1500 Net 3 MTU=1500 Net 2 MTU=620

  8. Fragmentation Control • Identification: copied into fragment, allows destination to know which fragments belong to which datagram • Fragment Offset (12 bits): specifies the offset in the original datagram of the data being carried in the fragment • Measured in units of 8 bytes starting at 0 • Flags (3 bits): control fragmentation • Reserved (0-th bit) • Don’t Fragment – DF (1st bit): • useful for simple (computer bootstrap) application that can’t handle • also used for MTU discovery (see later) • if need to fragment and can’t router discards & sends error to source • More Fragments (least sig bit): tells receiver it has got last fragment • TCP traffic is hardly ever fragmented (due to use of MTU discovery). About 0.5% - 0.1% of TCP packets are fragmented .

  9. Fragment series composition Offset=0 More frags Offset=1480 More frags Offset=2960 More frags Offset=3440 Last frag NB. If data segment contains its own header that is not replicated

  10. Internet Addressing • IP address is a 32 bit integer • Refers to interface rather than host • Consists of network and host portions • Enables routers to keep 1 entry/network instead of 1/host • Class A, B, C for unicast • Class D for multicast • Class E reserved • Classless addresses • Written as 4 octets/bytes in decimal format • E.g. 134.79.16.1, 127.0.0.1

  11. Internet Class-based addresses • Class A: large number of hosts, few networks • 0nnnnnnn hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh • 7 network bits (0 and 127 reserved, so 126 networks), 24 host bits (> 16M hosts/net) • Initial byte 1-127 (decimal) • Class B: medium number of hosts and networks • 10nnnnnn nnnnnnnn hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh • 16,384 class B networks, 65,534 hosts/network • Initial byte 128-191 (decimal) • Class C: large number of small networks • 110nnnnn nnnnnnnn nnnnnnnn hhhhhhhh • 2,097,152 networks, 254 hosts/network • Initial byte 192-223 (decimal) • Class D: 224-239 (decimal) Multicast [RFC1112] • Class E: 240-255 (decimal) Reserved

  12. Subnets • A subnet mask is applied to the host bits to determine how the network is subnetted, e.g. if the host is: 137.138.28.228, and the subnet mask is 255.255.255.0 then the right hand 8 bits are for the host (255 is decimal for all bits set in an octet) • Host addresses of all bits set or no bits set, indicate a broadcast, i.e. the packet is sent to all hosts.

  13. Subnet Mask Conversions Prefix Length Prefix Length Subnet Mask Subnet Mask /1 128.0.0.0 /2 192.0.0.0 /3 224.0.0.0 /4 240.0.0.0 /5 248.0.0.0 /6 252.0.0.0 /7 254.0.0.0 /8 255.0.0.0 /9 255.128.0.0 /10 255.192.0.0 /11 255.224.0.0 /12 255.240.0.0 /13 255.248.0.0 /14 255.252.0.0 /15 255.254.0.0 /16 255.255.0.0 /17 255.255.128.0 /18 255.255.192.0 /19 255.255.224.0 /20 255.255.240.0 /21 255.255.248.0 /22 255.255.252.0 /23 255.255.254.0 /24 255.255.255.0 /25 255.255.255.128 /26 255.255.255.192 /27 255.255.255.224 /28 255.255.255.240 /29 255.255.255.248 /30 255.255.255.252 /31 255.255.255.254 /32 255.255.255.255 Decimal Octet Binary Number 128 1000 0000 192 1100 0000 224 1110 0000 240 1111 0000 248 1111 1000 252 1111 1100 254 1111 1110 255 1111 1111

  14. Address depletion • In 1991 IAB identified 3 dangers • Running out of class B addresses • Increase in nets has resulted in routing table explosion • Increase in net/hosts exhausting 32 bit address space • Four strategies to address • Creative address space allocation {RFC 2050} • Private addresses {RFC 1918}, Network Address Translation (NAT) {RFC 1631} • Classless InterDomain Routing (CIDR) {RFC 1519} • IP version 6 (IPv6) {RFC 1883}

  15. Creative IP address allocation • Class A addresses 64 – 127 reserved • Handle on individual basis • Class B only assigned given a demonstrated need • Class C • divided up into 8 blocks allocated to regional authorities • 208-223 remains unassigned and unallocated • Three main registries handle assignments • APNIC – Asia & Pacific www.apnic.net • ARIN – N. & S. America, Caribbean & sub-Saharan Africa www.arin.net • RIPE – Europe and surrounding areas www.ripe.net

  16. Private IP Addresses • IP addresses that are not globally unique, but used exclusively in an organization • Three ranges: • 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255 a single class A net • 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 16 contiguous class Bs • 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255 256 contiguous class Cs • Connectivity provided by Network Address Translator (NAT) • translates outgoing private IP address to Internet IP address, and a return Internet IP address to a private address • Only for TCP/UDP packets

  17. Class InterDomain Routing (CIDR) • Many organization have > 256 computers but few have more than several thousand • Instead of giving class B (16384 nets) give sufficient contiguous class C addresses to satisfy needs • < 256 addresses assign 1 class C • … • < 8192 addresses assign 32 contiguous Class C nets

  18. CIDR & Supernetting • Since assigned contiguously, class C CIDR has same most significant bits & so only needs one routing table entry • CIDR block represented by a prefix and prefix length • Prefix = single address representing block of nets, e.g • 192.32.136.0 = 11000000 00100000 10001000 00000000 while • 192.32.143.0 = 11000000 00100000 10001111 00000000 • Prefix length indicates number of routing bits, e.g. 192.32.136.0/21 means 21 bits used for routing • CIDR collects all nets in range 192.32.136.0 through 143.0 into a single router entry – reduces router table entries • Removes address classes A, B & C boundaries • For more details see RFC 1519 21 bit prefix (2048 host addresses)

  19. Address Recognition Protocol (ARP) • IP address is at network layer, need to map it to the MAC (Ethernet address) link layer address • Use ARP to map 48 bit Ethernet address to 32 bit IP • IP requests MAC address for IP address from local ARP table • If not there, then an ARP request packet for IP address is sent using physical broadcast address (all FFFs) • Host with requested IP address responds with its MAC address as a unicast packet • On return, host updates ARP table and returns MAC address • ARP cache times out • ARP packets are on top of Ethernet

  20. ARP cont. • ARP requests are local only, do not cross routers • Compare local IP and subnet mask => local subnet • Compare local subnet to destination IP • if local, ARP for MAC address • else remote so • if ROUTE entry, ARP for router to subnet • if default route, ARP for default gateway • otherwise, drop packet & return error Subnet 1 Subnet 2 134.79.10.17 134.79.10.1 134.79.15.1 134.79.15.3 User A User B

  21. Routing • Routers must select next hop for packet • Get route information from other routers via a routing protocol (RIP, OSPF, EIGRP etc.) • Note the following are non-routable: • private networks: 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, 192.168.0.0/16 • Loopback 127.0.0.0/24

  22. ICMP Purpose (RFC 792) • Communicates control & error information • Between routers and hosts • Only reports to original source, suggests corrections • Error messages about error messages are not generated • Never generated due to multicasts • Packet format 0 8 16 24 31 Type Code Checksum ICMP data (depends on type/code)

  23. Main ICMP request types

  24. ICMP Echo/Ping • Very commonly used diagnostic tool • Implementations vary between OS’ • Build echo request • Identifier used to match request to replies (e.g. pid) • Sequence number, starts at 0 increments by 1 for each ping packet • Used to detect loss, reorder, duplicates • Optional data, sent by requester, returned by replier • Usually contains a timestamp when the request was sent plus pad data 0 8 16 24 31 Type=8 Code=0 Checksum Identifier Sequence number Optional data

  25. What do we learn from Ping • Host reachable • Host may respond to ping but not be running services • Round trip timing • Lost packets • Packet reordering duplicate packets • Example: 13cottrell@noric05:~>ping -c 4 lhr.comsats.net.pk PING lhr.comsats.net.pk (210.56.16.10) from 134.79.125.205 : 56(84) bytes of data. 64 bytes from lhr.comsats.net.pk (210.56.16.10): icmp_seq=0 ttl=242 time=716.962 msec 64 bytes from lhr.comsats.net.pk (210.56.16.10): icmp_seq=1 ttl=242 time=720.375 msec 64 bytes from lhr.comsats.net.pk (210.56.16.10): icmp_seq=2 ttl=242 time=725.907 msec 64 bytes from lhr.comsats.net.pk (210.56.16.10): icmp_seq=3 ttl=242 time=710.734 msec --- lhr.comsats.net.pk ping statistics --- 4 packets transmitted, 4 packets received, 0% packet loss round-trip min/avg/max/mdev = 710.734/718.494/725.907/5.566 ms

  26. Unreachable 76cottrell@flora06:~>ping islamabad-server2.comsats.net.pk ICMP 13 Unreachable from gateway 207.45.205.18 for icmp from FLORA06.SLAC.Stanford.EDU (134.79.16.101) to islamabad-server2.comsats.net.pk (210.56.8.8) What does this mean, see exercise?

  27. Time Exceeded • Time-to-live has expired at a router (code=0) • ttl sets bound on number routers datagram can transit • Prevents infinite routine loops • Initialized by sender, decremented by 1 each time passes router • When ttl = 0 datagram thrown away & sender notified by ICMP message • Fragment reassembly timer (code=1) 0 8 16 24 31 Type 11 Code Checksum Unused Internet header & 8 bytes of data

  28. MTU Discovery • Path MTUs vary • Fragmentation is bad • Small transmission units are bad • SO need to discover optimum MTU (largest without fragmentation) • Host sends a packet with the Don’t Fragment bit set • Length is lesser of local MTU and MSS announced by remote system • If MTU between hosts requires fragmentation (e.g. at an intermediate router), then • if an ICMP DF bit set & must fragment then an ICMP message is sent back to source, saying “I can’t fragment” • try again with smaller size.

  29. User Datagram Protocol - UDP • RFC 768, Protocol 17 • Provides unreliable, connectionless on top of IP • Minimal overhead, high performance • No setup/teardown, 1 datagram at a time • Application responsible for reliability • Includes datagram loss, duplication, delay, out-of-sequence, multiplexing, loss of connectivity Demux on Port number App. Port 1 Port 2 Port 1 Port 2 Transport UDP TCP Demux on IP protocol IP Network

  30. UDP Datagram format 0 8 16 24 31 Source port Destination port UDP message len Checksum (opt.) Data … • Source/destination port: port numbers identify sending & receiving processes • Port number & IP address allow any application in any computer on Internet to be uniquely identified • Used to demultiplex datagrams to processes • Ports can be static or dynamic • Static (< 1024) assigned centrally, known as well known ports • Dynamic • Message length in bytes includes the UDP header and data

  31. UDP applications • Message oriented, e.g. SNMP, DNS, time • File system, e.g. NFS, AFS • Lightweight file transfer, e.g. tftp, bootp

  32. Transmission Control Protocol -TCP • RFC 768 & host requirements RFC 1122 • Reliable stream transport • Connection oriented (full duplex virtual circuit) • Conceptually place call, two ends communicate to agree on details • After agreeing application notified of connection • During transfer, ends communicate continuously to verify data received correctly • When done, ends tear down the connection • If UDP is like regular mail, TCP is like phone call • Provides buffering and flow control • Takes care of lost packets, out of order, duplicates, long delays • Isolates application program from network details • Jargon • Segment = TCP packet • Socket= source (address + port) + destination (address + port)

  33. TCP layering • To ID connection need: • Source: (address, port) AND Destination: (address, port) • Only need one port on host to allow multiple connections, since each connection will have different (host, port) at other end • E.g. single host can serve multiple telnet connections • Passive open: application contacts OS & indicates will accept incoming connection, OS assigns port and listens • Active open: application requests OS to connect to an (host, port) App. Port 1 Port 2 Port 1 Port 2 Demux on Port number Transport UDP TCP Demux on IP protocol IP port 6 IP Network

  34. TCP – providing reliability • Positive acknowledgement (ACK) with retransmission • Sender keeps record of each packet sent • Sender awaits an ACK • Sender starts timer when sends packet Receiver site Sender site Send pkt 1 Rcv pkt 1 Send ACK 1 Time Rcv ACK 1 Send pkt 2 Rcv pkt 2 Send ACK 2 Rcv ACK 2 Network messages

  35. TCP – simple lost packet recovery Sender site Receiver site Loss Send pkt 1 Start timer Pkt should arrive ACK should be sent ACK normally arrives Timer expires Retransmit pkt 1 start timer Rcv pkt 1 Send ACK 1 Rcv ACK 1 Network messages

  36. TCP – improving performance • BUT simple ACK protocol wastes bandwidth since it must delay sending next packet until it gets ACK • Use sliding window • Sender can send 4 packets of data without ACK • When sender gets ACK then can send another packet • Window = unacknowledged packets/bytes • Keeps timer for each packet Window slides Initial window of 4 packets • 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 … • 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 … Packets to be sent Packets successfully sent Packets sent, awaiting ACK

  37. Tuning to fill pipe t = bits in packet/link speed ACK RTT • Optimal window size depends on: • Bandwidth end to end, i.e. min(BWlinks) AKA bottleneck bandwidth • Round Trip Time (RTT) • For TCP keep pipe full • Window (sometime called pipe) ~ RTT*BW • Can increase bandwidth by orders of magnitude • Windows also used for flow control Src Rcv

  38. Implementation • Sliding window operates at byte level, NOT packet • Receiver keeps similar window to put stream back together • Since full duplex, altogether 4 windows & pointer sets Current window • 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 … Highest byte that can be sent 3 pointers Highest byte sent Bytes sent and acknowledged

  39. TCP flow control • Windows vary over time • Receiver advertises (in ACKs) how many it can receive • Based on buffers etc. available • Sender adjusts its window to match advertisement • If receiver buffers fill, it sends smaller adverts • Used to match buffer requirements of receiver • Also used to address congestion control (e.g. in intermediate routers)

  40. TCP Segment format 8 16 24 • Source/Dest port: TCP port numbers to ID applications at both ends of connection • Sequence number: ID position in sender’s byte stream 0 4 10 31 Source port Destination port Sequence number Acknowledgement number Hlen Resv Code Window Checksum Urgent ptr Options (if any) Padding Data if any …

  41. TCP segment format – cont. • Acknowledgement: identifies the number of the byte the sender of this segment expects to receive next • Hlen: specifies the length of the segment header in 32 bit multiples. If there are no options, the Hlen = 5 (20 bytes) • Reserved for future use, set to 0 • Code: used to determine segment purpose, e.g. SYN, ACK, FIN, URG

  42. TCP Segment format- cont • Window: Advertises how much data this station is willing to accept. Can depend on buffer space remaining. • Checksum: Verifies the integrity of the TCP header and data. It is mandatory. • Urgent pointer: used with the URG flag to indicate where the urgent data starts in the data stream. Typically used with a file transfer abort during FTP or when pressing an interrupt key in telnet. • Options: used for window scaling, SACK, timestamps, maximum segment size etc.

  43. TCP timeout • Need a timeout estimate that will work for LANs (RTT < msec.) to satellite WANs (hundreds of msec. to secs). RTT can vary a lot with time of day, day of week, or one second to next. • TCP records time segment sent • and time ACK received • Then calculates RTT sample • Smooth & use to estimate timeout, e.g. • Timeout=beta * RTTs • Timeout= RTTs + eta{=4}*f(dev(RTTs)) • Needs to take account of losses, e.g. • New_timeout=gamma{2} * timeout May 12th RTT ms. Time of day

  44. TCP connection establishment • 3 way handshake • Initial sequence numbers (x, y) are chosen randomly • Guarantees both sides ready & know it, and sets initial sequence numbers, also sets window & mss • Once connection established, data can flow in both directions, equally well, there is no master or slave Site 2 Site 1 Active Win 4096, mss 1024 Send SYN seq x Rcv SYN segment Passive Win 4096, mss 1024 Send SYN seq=y, ACK x+1 Rcv SYN/ACK Send ACK y+1 Rcv ACK segment

  45. TCP close connection • Modified 3 way handshake (or 4 way termination) • App tells TCP to close, TCP sends remaining data & waits for ACK, then sends FIN • Site 2 TCP ACKs FIN, tells its application “end of data” • Site 2 sends FIN when its app closes connection (may be long delay (e.g. require human interaction). Site 1 Site 2 (App closes) Send FIN seq=x Rcv FIN segment Send ACK x=1 (inform app) Rcv ACK segment (app closes connection) Send FIN seq=y, ACK x+1 Rcv FIN + ACK seg Send ACK y+1 Receive ACK segment

  46. More Information • Lectures, tutorials etc: • www.nv.cc.va.us/home/joney/tcp_ip.htm • www.cs.pdx.edu/~jrb/tcpip.lectures.html • www.raleigh.ibm.com/cgi-bin/bookmgr/BOOKS/EZ306200/CCONTENTS • www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/product/iaabu/centri4/user/scf4ap1.htm • www.cis.ohio-state.edu/htbin/rfc/rfc1180.html • www.jbmelectronics.com/tcp.htm • Encylopaedia • http://www.freesoft.org/CIE/index.htm • TCP/IP Resources • www.private.org.il/tcpip_rl.html • Understanding IP addresses • http://www.3com.com/solutions/en_US/ncs/501302.html • Configuring TCP (RFC 1122) • ftp://nic.merit.edu/internet/documents/rfc/rfc1122.txt • Assigned protocols, ports etc (RFC 1010) • http://www.es.net/pub/rfcs/rfc1010.txt & /etc/protocols

  47. Example: 3 way handshake • atlas> telnet sunstats.cern.ch • atlas is a WNT PC, sunstats is a Sun Solaris 5.6 host • MSS is set in TCP option in a SYN segment, communicates the MSS the sender wants to receive • len=ip_hlen/tcp_hlen:ip_total_len • Initial Sequence Numbers are randomly selected • Telnet = port 23 • W=Receive window size advertises how much data this host will accept

  48. Example: 3 way handshake - cont. • TCP from atlas:1174 to sunstats:23 seq=180839, A=0, W=8192, SYN [len=5/6:44, opt=020405B4 <opt=2, len=4, mss=0x5B4=1460>] • TCP from sunstats:23 to atlas:1174 seq=1383568304, A=180840, W=64240, SYN/ACK [len=5/6:44, opt=020405B4] • TCP from atlas:1174 to sunstats:23 seq =180840, A=1383568305, W=8760 [len=5/5:40, opt=nul] • Notice window size can vary from segment to segment depending on buffer space available • Notice smaller PC window advertisement • Notice ephemeral port selected by telnet client • Notice acknowledge next expected byte (=seq+1) • 0x020405B4: 02 = option type, 04=len, 0x5B4=1460

  49. Session start SLAC>CERN: 256kbyte window,1 stream, full speed > 30msec, 13MBytes in 20s, 5.1MBytes/s Congestion window Rcvr Advertised window Segments sent Acks returned by Rcvr

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