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Attitudes

Attitudes. Lecture 7. Attitude. „Attitude” from Latin. Aptus ( fit) Attitude: Learned (conditioning, exposure, vicarious learning etc.) Stable (stable disposition) Evaluation of a target object ( emotional component) That influences behavior. Attitudes and other concepts.

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Attitudes

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  1. Attitudes Lecture 7

  2. Attitude • „Attitude” from Latin. Aptus (fit) • Attitude: • Learned (conditioning, exposure, vicarious learning etc.) • Stable (stable disposition) • Evaluation of a target object (emotional component) • That influences behavior

  3. Attitudes and other concepts • Habits - behavioral • Values – general goals • Beliefs – probabilistic judgments • Opinions – elements of knowledge system

  4. Functions of attitudes • Cognitive – source of knowledge • Utilitarian – maximize gains and minimize losses • Egotistic and defensive – protect values and identities • Value expression

  5. Structure of attitudes • Three components of attitudes (ABC: Affective, Behavioral, Cognitive) • EMOTIONAL: evaluation of the target object • COGNITIVE: knowledge about the target object • BEHAVIORAL : behavior towards the target object • The most important (definitional) attitudinal componet: emotional

  6. Attitudes form a structure • Fritz Heider (1958): Concept of „cognitive unit” • Objects = objects of attitudes • Relationsbetween objects • Emotional relations • liking • disliking • Unit relations: • positive (eg. owning, approaching) • negative (eg. avoidance, ignoring, sellingetc.)

  7. Cognitive unit Self R2 R1 Object A Object B R3

  8. Cognitive unit Balanced unit Self + + Object A Object B +

  9. Cognitive unit Unbalanced unit Self + + Object A Object B -

  10. Cognitive balance • Cognitive units may be balanced • My two friends like each other • Or unbalanced • I am jealous of a friend of my boy-friend • Affective consistency – condition for cognitive balance

  11. Cognitive balance theory Abelson & Rosenberg (1960) + + + + + - + - - - - - Balanced units Unbalanced units

  12. Restoring balance + + + + + - + - - - - - Balanced units Unbalanced units

  13. Balanced structure - + + - - + - + + - +

  14. Unbalanced structure + - + + - + - - - + +

  15. Theories of attitude change • Two directions of the relationship between attitude and behavior • Attitude  Behavior • I like him therefore I will help him • He irritates me therefore I will attack him • Behavior  Attitude • I helped him, therefore I like him • I hurt him, therefore I don’t like him

  16. Conditions of attitude change • Attitude  behavior • In order to change behavior one has to change attitude • Behavior  attitude • In order to change attitude one has to change behavior (attitude = justification of behavior)

  17. Attitude  behavior • Theories of persuasion (Yale school) • Theory of reasoned action (M. Fishbein & I. Ajzen) • Elaboration likelihood model (R. Petty & J. Caccioppo) • Assimilation-contrast theory (M. Sherif)

  18. Behavior  attitude • Theory of cognitive dissonance • Self-attribution theory

  19. Leon Festinger (1957) Theory of cognitive dissonance Dissonance = any inconsistency between two beliefs, such that from one of them follows its contradiction

  20. Inconsistency in Festinger’s theory Behavior (-) Self-evaluation (+) I have lied but I am honest I made a stupid decision but I am rational I inserted lots of effort but I am reasonable

  21. Insufficient reward paradigm Boring task Attitude measurement I Promised reward Lie Reward $1 Reward $ 20 Attitude measurement II

  22. Conclusions • Low reward  strong dissonance  attitude change (behavior justification) • High reward  no dissonance  no attitude change

  23. Unjustified effort paradigm Initiation to a group No initiation Boring task Attitude measurement

  24. Conclusions • Difficult access to a group  more dissonance  the group more attractive • We value more what is difficult to achieve

  25. Post-decisional dissonance paradigm A B C D E Choice D Post-decisional dissonance Increase attractiveness of D Decrease attractiveness of other alternatives

  26. Strength of post-decisional dissonance • Number of alternatives  the more the stronger dissonance • Similarity of alternatives the lower, the stronger dissonance

  27. Who is more persuasive – liked or disliked superior? Liked superior Disliked superior Attitude towards eating grasshoppers Eating grasshoppers Measurement of attitude towards food from grasshoppers

  28. Cognitive dissonance theory • The first dynamic model in social psychology • Continuation • Paradigm of post-decisional dissonance: • Descriptive models of decision making: pre-decisional vs. post-decisional dissonance, regret theory of decision making • Paradigm of insufficient reward • Theory of intrinsic motivation and engagement • Paradigm of unjustified effort • Theories of entrapment

  29. Effects of insufficient reward Theory of intrinsic motication E. Deci i R. Ryana • Two motivational systems: extrinsic (instrumental) and intrinsic • Factors that suppress intrinsic motivation: • money • deadlines • grades and tokens • competition

  30. Post-decisional vs. pre-decisional dissonance • L. Festinger –POST-decisional dissonance • Contemporary descriptive models of decision making (e.g. H. Montgomery) – seeking information in a way to prevent post-decisional regret

  31. Decision as search for a dominant structure P R E F E R E N C E S A B C D E F G Screening B D E F Choice of promising alternative B D E F Final choice E

  32. Decision making as dominance testing • Screening stage: elimination of the negatuve • Non-negative stage • Choice of a promising alternatuve • Dominance testing • Focus on the promising alternative • Increase in attractiveness of the promising alternative • Creating dominance • Manipulating weights and preferences • Perspective changes • Final choice (of the promising alternative)

  33. Entrapment – mechanisms and consequences

  34. Rational or rationalizing? • What does it mean to be „rational”? • Logical and consistent: if you said A you should say B) • Justified: you should act in a justified way, you should have good reasons for doing something • Efficient: you should choose the best means to an end • Critical: you should objectively analyze an issue from many points of view

  35. Rational decisions • Have clear goals: know what you want • Don’t decide hastily: consider many possibilities and many aspects of each alternative • Don’t be involved in wishful thinking – what you would like to happen doesn’t always happen • Be efficient: choose optimal means to your ends • Be efficient: avoid losses, maximize gains • Learn from your mistakes

  36. Do people always act rationally? • Sunk costs effect • Entrapment or to much invested to quit • Commitment • Escalation behavior • Perseverance on unrealistic goals • Status quo bias

  37. Decision traps

  38. Sunk costs effect • B. Staw (1976) • Big enterprise produces technical goods • Two main sections • Consumer products • Industrial products • Subject: vice-director for finances

  39. „Sunk costs” effect • $ 10 millions to be assigned to one of two sections • Two conditions: • Subject decides which section should be given money • Subject has no influence on assignement • Feedback information on consequences of money assignment: • Positive – the section flourishes • Negative – the section loses

  40. Experimental conditions department profit loss subject responsible not responsible

  41. New prospects • Additional $ 20 millions • Distributing the money between the two sections • Subject decides how much each section gets

  42. Results

  43. Results • More money assigned to the loser • More money assigned if the subject felt responsible

  44. Teger (1980) One-dollar auction game • Rules of the game: • Buying one dollar • Any number of players can bid (minimum two) • Bids should be relatively small and escalate slowly (e.g., 5c) • This player who bids the highest amount gets the dollar • The player who bids the next highest amount must also pay

  45. Two turning points • Profit for the experimenter: 50c – 55c • Loss for the players: $ 1,05

  46. Results • Bids up to $10 in order to buy one dollar

  47. Decision traps or entrapment • Entrapment = a decision making process whereby individuals escalate their commitment to a previously chosen, though failing, course of action in order to justify or „make good on” prior investments

  48. Too much invested too quit • Waiting for a bus • Continuing a failing marriage/relationship • Staying on unsatisfactory job • Escalation of war which has no chance for quick resolution • Hazard and gambling: continuing to invest beyond rational limits • Face-losing politicians

  49. Situational determinants of entrapment • The decision maker’s investments in the pursuit of the goal can be interpreted as irretrievable expenses („sunk costs”) • The decision maker must be able to choose between entering/remaining in the entrapping situation or not • It is never entirely certain that the decision maker’s goal will be realized • In order to achieve their objective, the decision makers must make investments repeatedly (continual rather than „one-shot” decisions)

  50. When do we fall into a trap? • Freedom of choice • The sunk costs cannot be retrieved • The goal is uncertain • Continuous investment

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