Presentation Transcript

1. GEOG 101: Day 17

   Finishing Up Climate Change, and Fossil Fuels
2. Housekeeping Items The film, “Green Fire,” was really good. Aldo Leopold, in addition to pioneering many fields of ecological practice, articulated ‘the land ethic’: “All ethics so far evolved rest upon a single premise: that the individual is a member of a community of interdependent parts. His instincts prompt him to compete for his place in that community, but his ethics prompt him also to co-operate (perhaps in order that there may be a place to compete for). The land ethic simply enlarges the boundaries of the community to include soils, waters, plants, and animals, or collectively: the land. In short, a land ethic changes the role of Homo sapiens from conqueror of the land-community to plain member and citizen of it. It implies respect for his fellow-members, and also respect for the community as such…. A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise.” – The Sand County Almanac, 1949.
3. Stephen Harper on Kyoto, 2002 “We’re gearing up for the biggest struggle our party has faced since you entrusted me with the leadership. I’m talking about the “battle of Kyoto” — our campaign to block the job-killing, economy-destroying Kyoto Accord. It would take more than one letter to explain what’s wrong with Kyoto, but here are a few facts about this so-called “Accord”: — It’s based on tentative and contradictory scientific evidence about climate trends. — It focuses on carbon dioxide, which is essential to life, rather than upon pollutants. — Canada is the only country in the world required to make significant cuts in emissions. Third World countries are exempt, the Europeans get credit for shutting down inefficient Soviet-era industries, and no country in the Western hemisphere except Canada is signing. — Implementing Kyoto will cripple the oil and gas industry, which is essential to the economies of Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia. — As the effects trickle through other industries, workers and consumers everywhere in Canada will lose. THERE ARE NO CANADIAN WINNERS UNDER THE KYOTO ACCORD. — The only winners will be countries such as Russia, India, and China, from which Canada will have to buy “emissions credits.” Kyoto is essentially a socialist scheme to suck money out of wealth-producing nations. — On top of all this, Kyoto will not even reduce greenhouse gases. By encouraging transfer of industrial production to Third World countries where emissions standards are more relaxed, it will almost certainly increase emissions on a global scale. For a long time, the Canadian Alliance stood virtually alone in opposing the Kyoto Accord, as Bob Mills, our senior environment critic, waged a valiant battle against it. Now, however, allies are stepping forward — eight of 10 provincial governments, and a broad coalition of businesses across Canada — to help us fight the ``battle of Kyoto.” Jean Chrétien says he will introduce a resolution to ratify Kyoto into Parliament and get it passed before Christmas. We will do everything we can to stop him there, but he might get it passed with the help of the socialists in the NDP and the separatists in the BQ. But the “battle of Kyoto” is just beginning. Ratification is merely symbolic; Kyoto will not take effect unless and until it is implemented by legislation. We will go to the wall to stop that legislation and at that point we will be on much stronger procedural ground than in trying to block a mere resolution. ….It will take an army of Canadians to beat Kyoto, [but we can do it]…”
4. Upon successfully completing this chapter, you will be able to Identify the principal energy sources that we use Describe the nature and origin of coal and evaluate its extraction and use Describe the nature and origin of natural gas and evaluate its extraction and use Describe the nature and origin of oil and evaluate its extraction, use, and future availability Describe the nature, origin, and potential of alternative fossil fuel types and technologies Outline and assess environmental impacts of fossil fuel use Evaluate political, social, and economic impacts of fossil fuel use Specify strategies for conserving energy and enhancing efficiency
5. Central Case: On, Off, On Again? The MacKenzie Valley Natural Gas Pipeline “We’ve embarked on the beginning of the last days of the age of oil.” – Mike Bowlin, Chair, ARCO Proposal to develop three major natural gas fields Delayed 10 years because of deep opposition Many who opposed the pipeline became supporters Potential effects: fragmentation of habitat, damage breeding areas, deforestation, increase GHG emissions Natural gas from the region may go straight into the production of oil from Alberta’s tar sands
6. Sources of Energy 16-7
7. Renewable energy = supplies of energy will not be depleted by our use Sunlight, geothermal energy, and tidal energy Nonrenewable energy = at our current rates of consumption we will use up Earth’s accessible store of these sources in a matter of decades to centuries Oil, coal, natural gas, nuclear energy To replenish the fossil fuels we have depleted so far would take millions of years We use a variety of energy sources
8. Fossil fuels = highly combustible substances formed from remains of organisms from past geologic ages Electricity = a secondary form of energy that is easier to transfer and apply to a variety of uses We use a variety of energy sources (cont’d)
9. Nonrenewable Crude oil Natural gas Coal Nuclear energy Renewable Biomass energy Hydropower Solar energy Wind Energy Geothermal energy Tidal and wave energy Chemical fuels We use a variety of energy sources (cont’d)
10. Fossil fuels we burn today were formed from the tissues of organisms that lived 100-500 million years ago Fossil fuels are produced only when organic materials is broken down in an anaerobic environment = one that has little or no oxygen Bottoms of deep lakes, swamps, and shallow seas Organic matter is eventually converted into crude oil, natural gas, or coal Fossil fuels are indeed created from fossils
11. Fossil fuel reserves are unevenly distributed Some regions have substantial reserves, whereas others have very few How long a nation’s reserves will last depends on: How much the nation extracts, consumes How much it imports from and exports to other nations Nearly 67% of the world’s proven reserves of crude oil lie in the Middle East The U.S. possesses more coal than any other nation
12. Developed nations consume more energy than developing nations Industrialized nations Use energy for transportation, industry, other Developing nations Use energy for subsistence activities Agriculture, food preparation, and home heating Manual or animal energy instead of fossil fuels
13. Regions vary greatly in energy consumption
14. It takes energy to make energy Net energy = the difference between energy returned and energy invested Net energy = energy returned – energy invested Energy returned on investment (EROI) = energy returned/energy invested Higher ratios mean we receive more energy than we invest Ratios decline when we extract the easiest deposits first and now must work harder to extract the remaining reserves
15. Coal, Natural Gas, and Oil 16-16
16. Coal is the world’s most abundant fossil fuel Coal = organic matter (woody plant material) that was compressed under very high pressure to form dense, solid carbon structures
17. Coal use has a long history The Romans used coal for heating in the second and third centuries in Britain The Chinese have used coal for 2,000 - 3,000 years Commercial mining began in the 1700s The invention of the steam engine expanded coal’s market Coal helped drive the Industrial Revolution and the steel industry In the 1880s, people used coal to generate electricity
18. Coal is mined from the surface and from below ground Subsurface mining = underground deposits are reached by digging networks of tunnels deep underground Strip mining = heavy machinery removes huge amounts of earth to expose and extract the coal Mountaintop removal = in some cases, entire mountaintops are cut off to obtain the coal
19. Coal varies in its qualities Coal varies from place to place Peat = organic material that is broken down anaerobically but remains wet, near the surface and not well compressed Widely used as a fuel in Britain Four types of coal Lignite = least compressed Sub-bituminous and bituminous Anthracite = most compressed; has the most energy
20. Coal varies in its qualities (cont’d) Coal contains impurities Sulfur, mercury, arsenic, and other trace metals Sulfur content depends on whether coal was formed in salt water or freshwater Coal in the eastern Canada is high in sulfur because it was formed in marine sediments When high-sulfur coal is burned, it released sulfate air pollutants, which contribute to smog and acidic deposition Mercury can bioaccumulate Ways to reduce pollution must be found
21. Natural gas is the fastest-growing fossil fuel in use today Natural gas consists primarily of methane, CH4, and varying amounts of other volatile hydrocarbons Can be liquid at ambient pressures and temperatures in subsurface reservoirs Provides 25% of global commercial energy consumption World supplies are projected to last about 60 more years
22. Natural gas is formed in two ways Biogenic gas = created at shallow depths by bacterial anaerobic decomposition of organic matter “swamp gas” Thermogenic gas = results from compression and heat deep underground Kerogen = organic matter that results when carbon bonds begin breaking Source material for natural gas and crude oil Coalbed methane = methane from coal seams, leaks to the atmosphere during mining
23. Natural gas has only recently been widely used The first commercial extraction occurred in 1821 but was only used locally, because it could not be transferred safely First used to light street lamps, then for heating and cooking After thousands of miles of pipes were laid, natural gas transport became safer and more economical Liquefied natural gas (LNG) = liquid gas that can be shipped long distances in refrigerated tankers Canada is the world’s third-largest producer of natural gas
24. Natural gas extraction becomes more challenging with time The first gas fields simply required an opening and the gas moved upward Most remaining fields require pumping by horsehead pumps Gas is accessed by sophisticated techniques such as fracturing technique, which pumps high-pressure salt water into rocks to crack them Fracking – extensive environmental impacts (see http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mUNBwqovI9U).
25. Offshore drilling produces much of our gas and oil Drilling takes place on land and in the seafloor on the continental shelves Platforms are either strong fixed platforms or floating platforms
26. Oil is the world’s most-used fuel People have used solid forms of oil (i.e., tar) for thousands of years Modern extraction and use began in the 1850s First bottled and sold as a healing aid, but it is carcinogenic This “rock oil” could be used lamps and as a lubricant Edwin Drake drilled the world’s first oil well, in Titusville, Pennsylvania, in 1859 Canadians – less than 0.005% of the world’s population – consume 2.5% of the oil
27. Heat and pressure underground form petroleum Oil, crude oil, or petroleum (oil and natural gas) Crude oil = a mixture of hundreds of different types of hydrocarbon molecules Formed 1.5 - 3 km (1 - 2 mi) underground Dead organic material was buried in marine sediments and transformed by time, heat, and pressure Refineries separate crude oil into components such as gas, tar, and asphalt
28. Petroleum geologists infer the location and size of deposits Geologists map underground rock formations Technically recoverable oil reveals the oil that could be extracted with current technology Economically recoverable oil recognizes the balance between the costs of extraction, transportation and current price of oil Proven recoverable reserve = oil that is technologically and economically feasible to remove under current conditions
29. We drill to extract oil Exploratory drilling = small, deep holes to determine whether extraction should be done Oil is under pressure and often rises to the surface Primary extraction = the initial drilling and pumping of available oil Secondary extraction = solvents, water, or stream is used to remove additional oil; expensive We lack the technology to remove every bit of oil As prices rise, it becomes economical to reopen a well
30. Primary and secondary oil extraction
31. Petroleum products have many uses
32. We may have already depleted half our oil reserves Some people calculate that we have used up about 1.1 trillion barrels of oil Reserves-to-production ratio (R/P ratio) = the amount of total remaining reserves divided by the annual rate of production (extraction and processing) At current levels of production (30 billion barrels/year), we have about 40 years of oil left We will face a crisis not when we run out of oil, but when the rate of production begins to decline
33. Hubbard’s peak = Geologist M. King Hubbard predicted that U.S. oil production would peak around 1970
34. Geologist Kenneth Deffeyes contends that we already passed peak global production in 2005
35. weighingtheissues The end of oil How do you think your life would be affected if our society were to suffer a 50% decrease in oil availability over the next 10 years, as some observers have predicted? What steps would you take to adapt to these changes? What steps should our society take to deal with the coming depletion of oil? Do you think the recent surges in the price of oil and gasoline are an indication that such changes are beginning?
36. “Unconvential” Fossil Fuels 16-37
37. Canada owns massive deposits of oil sands Oil sands (tar sands) = sand deposits with 1 - 20% bitumen, a thick form of petroleum rich in carbon, poor in hydrogen Degraded and chemically altered crude oil deposits Removed by strip mining Requires special extraction and refining processes to become useful
38. Oil shale is abundant in the American West Oil shale = sedimentary rock filled with kerogen (organic matter) that can be processed to produce liquid petroleum Can be burned like coal or baked in hydrogen (called prylosis) to produce liquid petroleum More than 40% is found in the U.S., mostly on federally owned land in the west Low prices for crude oil have kept investors away As oil prices increase, oil shale is attracting attention
39. Methane hydrate is another form of natural gas Methane hydrate(methane ice) = molecules of methane in a crystal lattice of water ice molecules Occurs in arctic locations and under the seafloor Formed by bacterial decomposition in anaerobic environments Immense amounts could be present, from twice to 20 times the amount of natural gas Extraction could destablize marine ecosystems Landslides and tsunamis release of large amounts of methane (a greenhouse gas)
40. Alternative fossil fuels have significant environmental impacts Low Energy Returned on Energy Invested (EROI) ratios: about 3:1 compared to the 5:1 ratio on crude oil These fuels exert severe environmental impacts Devastates landscapes Pollutes waterways Combustion pollutes the atmosphere just as much as crude oil, coal, and gas
41. Environmental Impact of Fossil Fuel Use 16-42
42. Fossil fuel emissions cause pollution and drive climate change Alter flux rates in Earth’s carbon cycle Release more carbon dioxide then they burn Pollutants and hydrocarbons cause severe health problems Mercury from coal-fired power plants Contaminates water supplies and freshwater ecosystems Run-off into water supplies, enter groundwater supplies FIGURE 15.15
43. Some emissions from fossil fuel burning can be “captured” Carbon capture and storage (CCS) Sequestration = storage of materials in geologic reservoirs on a long timescale Many environmentalists are skeptical about CCS Technology unproven True impacts are not known Increase acidification of ocean water FIGURE 15.15
44. Coal mining affects the environment Strip mining causes severe soil erosion and chemical runoff Acid drainage = sulfide minerals on exposed rock surfaces react with oxygen and rainwater to produce sulfuric acid Mountaintop removal causes enormous damage Material slides downhill, destroying immense areas of habitat
45. Coal mining affects the environment (cont’d) Subsurface mining is harmful to human health Inhalation of coal dust can lead to fatal black lung disease Mining companies must restore landscapes, but the impacts are still severe Costs to repair damages of mining are very high These costs are not included in the market prices of fossil fuels, which are kept inexpensive by government subsidies
46. Oil and gas extraction can alter the environment Road networks Extensive infrastructure Housing for workers Access roads Transport pipelines Waste piles for removed soil Ponds constructed for collecting toxic sludge that remains after oil removed
47. Political, Social, and Economic Aspects 16-48
48. Oil supply and prices affect the economies of nations Our economies are utterly tied to fossil fuels We are vulnerable to supplies’ becoming suddenly unavailable or extremely costly Gives seller nations control In Canada, imports outweigh exports 16-49
49. Oil supply and prices affect the economies of nations (cont’d) OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) resolved to stop selling oil to United States in 1973 as a consequence of U.S. support of Israel Created panic and oil prices skyrocketed Spurred inflation 16-50
50. Oil supply and prices affect the economies of nations (cont’d) Hurricanes Katrina and Rita destroyed offshore drilling systems and spiked oil prices Because the politically volatile Middle East has the majority of oil reserves, crises are a constant concern for the U.S. Despite political disagreements, the U.S. has a close relationship with Saudi Arabia because Saudi Arabia owns 22% of the world’s oil reserves
51. Residents may or may not benefit from their fossil fuel reserves Extraction of fossil fuels can be extremely lucrative Jobs to millions of employees Supply dividends to millions of investors Government assistance to residents of the area Local residents have frequently suffered Money often has not trickled down Few environmental regulations leads to environmental degradation
52. We need to conserve energy and find renewable sources Energy conservation = the practice of reducing energy use to: Extend the life of our nonrenewable energy supplies Be less wasteful Reduce environmental impact 2008: 83% of Canadians planned to buy a more fuel-efficient car next time around, 51% had been cutting down on driving Impacted on SUV and light truck industry
53. weighingtheissues More Kilometres, Less Gas If you drive an automobile, how many kilometres does it travel per 100 L of gasoline? If you drove 2400km (the distance from Montreal to Winnipeg) in a car with a fuel efficiency of 8.33 L/100 km, instead of making the trip in an SUV with a fuel efficiency of 12.5 L/100 km, how much money would you save on the trip? How much would you save on the amount you typically drive in a year? Do you think that the government should raise taxes on gasoline sales as an incentive to consumers to conserve energy?
54. Personal choice and increased efficiency are two routes to conservation Individuals can reduce energy consumption Society can make energy-consuming devices more efficient Increase fuel efficiency Improve the efficiency of power plants Cogeneration = excess heat produced during electrical generation is used to heat buildings and produce other types of power
55. Personal choice and increased efficiency are two routes to conservation (cont’d) Improvements in home design can reduce energy required to heat and cool them Scores of appliances have been reengineered to increase energy efficiency Consumers need to vote with their wallets by buying energy-efficient products
56. Conclusion Conserving energy is better than finding a new reserve as it lessens impacts on the environment while extending access to fossil fuels The only sustainable way of guaranteeing a reliable long-term supply of energy is to ensure sufficiently rapid development of renewable energy sources Fossil fuels have helped us build our complex industrialized societies but now fossil fuel production will begin to decline We can encourage conservation and develop alternative energy sources or wait until fossil fuels are depleted Renewable energy sources are becoming feasible and economical Easier to envision giving up on our reliance on fossil fuels Win-win future for humanity and the environment