Research Methods

1. Research Methods The system of rules, principles, and procedures that guides scientific investigation Can only be used with questions that can be answered by observable, verifiable facts.

2. Kinds of Methods • Experimental: Example Milgram’s Obedience to Authority • Survey Research: Population—small sample of individuals drawn from a larger population; random sample—sample chosen in such a way that every member of population in question has the same chance of being selected • Observational: In-depth, detailed accounts of events, groups, social processes; includes case studies, detached observation, participant observation (p.o.) • Existing Sources: Statistical analysis of census data; historical comparative .

3. Cause & Effect • Scientific method focuses of viewing facts where we can demonstrate a direct cause and effect link. • Methods seek to demonstrate the relationship between cause and effect by looking at how variables change. • All generalizations in science are statements of probability, not certainty, for categories of variables under consideration.

4. Establishing causation • You need three criteria for a causal relationship: a correlation (regular association between variables); the elimination through controls of other possible causes; analysis of the relationship between variables considering time order.

5. Statistics • Statistics: averages among groups of numbers can be found by looking at the mean (central tendency), median (middle number), and mode (number which appears most often

6. Variables • Variables: characteristics which can change over time, from place to place, from one individual or group to another; includes independent variable—the causal factor and dependent variable—the affected variable.

7. Correlations • Correlations: discovery of relationship between variables is done through statistically establishing correlations between variables which means relationships between variables that occurs regularly. A spurious correlation is a coincidental correlation that is not causal. To establish whether a correlation exists we need controls. Measured by a correlation in coefficient which may find a negative correlation, no correlation, or a positive correlation between variables.

8. Controls: • ways of excluding factors and variables which may be influencing the cause and effect relationship

9. Research Design • Define the problem. • Review the literature. • Formulate an hypothesis: a tentative statement that predicts a relationship between variables. • Choose a research method. • Collect the data • Analyze the results • Draw conclusions and write them up.

10. Research Problems • Ethical issues: Milgram? Certain kinds of experiments and research cannot or should not be performed; informed consent versus deception • Unexpected problems: difficulties in doing the research like people refusing to answer, unexpected events. • The act of being investigated alters behavior. The sociologist is always part of the research study. • Issues of objectivity versus subjectivity (relates to quantitative versus qualitative methods). Some argue that sociologists must always bring subjectivity to research to achieve verstehen—empathetic understanding • Research applications: you may not be able to control how your results will be applied and used by others.