Personality and Sport Performance

1. Personality and Sport Performance September 3, 2002

2. Definitions • “The sum total of an individual’s characteristics which make him/her unique” (Hollander, 1971) • Collection of traits; consistent • Construct of personality (Hollander, 1971; Martens, 1975)

3. Structure of personality • Psychological core • Typical responses • Role-related behaviors • All are influenced by the social environment • Role-related behaviors most influenced by environment

4. Psychological Core • Indicative of what the person is “really” like • Basic attitudes, values, etc. • Centerpiece of personality • Most difficult to change • We would want to understand this to make any further assumptions about a person

5. Typical Responses • Usual manner in which we respond to different environmental situations • Frustration, anxiety, humor, etc. • We use a person’s typical responses to determine their psychological core • May be based on one-time response

6. Role-Related Behavior • Most superficial aspect of personalities • Engage in these behaviors to fit the environment we perceive • As our perceptions change, our superficial behaviors change • Not a good indicator of a person’s psychological core

7. Problems with Personality Structure • What is influence of underlying personality? • If a person can act so differently based on situation, how much influence does personality really have?

8. Theories of Personality • Hippocratic/physiological • Psychodynamic • Social Learning • Trait Theories • Interactionist

9. Hippocrates/Physiological • Hippocrates (400 B.C.) • personalities based on 4 bodily humors (black bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm) • Phrenology • Bumps on skull • Physiognomy • What animal does the face most closely resemble?

10. Psychodynamic • Freud was the most renowned psychodynamic theorist • Free association • Personality explained through three components • Id • Ego • Superego

11. Components of Personality • Id • Irrational; operates from “pleasure principle” • Usually sexual or aggressive instincts • Ego • Logical, reality-oriented • Superego • Conscience, internalized moral standards

12. Defense Mechanisms for Ego • If too much conflict exists between the three parts of the personality, ego may have to “defend itself” • Repression • Rationalization • Projection • Displacement

13. Social Learning • Human behavior is a function of social learning and the strength of the situation • Behave as we learned how • Effect of personality traits should be minimal • Based on stimulus-response theory • Stimulus-->organism-->response

14. Social Learning • Two primary mechanisms through which individuals learn socially: • Modeling • Social reinforcement

15. Modeling • Bandura’s social learning theory (1963) • Imitative behavior/vicarious learning • Vicarious learning requires: • An observer • Actor who serves as the model for the behavior • Modeling cues (components of model’s behavior) • Bobo Doll Study (1965) • Examples in sport (LLWS, etc.)

16. Social Reinforcement • Rewarded behaviors are more likely to be repeated • Verbal/nonverbal communication may affect response • Positive reinforcement (give a positive) • Negative reinforcement (remove a negative) • Punishment (apply a negative)

17. Trait Theories • How do people with varying degrees of traits tend to behave? • Traits = relatively stable characteristics exhibited over time & across situation • Typically generalizable & used to predict behavior in a variety of situations • Convergence indicates expression of a trait (shyness, anxiety, etc.)

18. Trait Theories • States = Feelings and thoughts related to a particular time and/or situation • Anxious before competition • Trait theories widely researched, but generally criticized • Mischel (1968) argued people do not behave as predictably as trait theorists suggest--situations influence • Traits do play some role (and predispose for states)

19. Interactionist Theory • Person and environment both interact to create human behavior • Personality is exerted in some places and not in others (e.g., hockey player) • Behavior expectancies are significant, but stresses individual differences (how much does an individual value a reward) • Recognizes potential influence of personality & situation

20. Assessing Personality • Three major techniques for assessment • Sometimes linked with specific theories: • Rating scales • Unstructured projective tests • Questionnaires

21. Rating Scales • Use of a judge to observe individual in some situation • Checklist or scale (maximum objectivity) • Interview or observation of performance • If performed properly (well-trained & systematic), can be reliable & valid

22. Unstructured Projective Procedures • Used to identify traits (or motives) • Allow subjects to reveal inner feelings & motives • Closely associated with psychoanalytic • Rorschach Test (1954), Thematic Apperception Test (1947), Sentence Completion Test (1954)

23. Structured Questionnaires • Pencil-and-paper, T/F, Likert-type scales • Some designed for abnormal, some normal • MMPI (hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, masc.-fem., lying) • Cattell 16 PF (introversion-extroversion, anxiety, tough-mindedness, and independence) • Athletic Motivation Inventory (leadership, aggression, trust, coachability, etc.)

24. Use in Sport • Rating scales & projective procedures not used frequently in sport/exercise • Questionnaires (16 PF) used more often to help athletes identify strengths & weaknesses • Used to develop intervention strategies & identify athlete belief system regarding their personalities

25. Credulous Vs. Skeptical • Two schools of thought • Credulous • Personality can be used to predict athletic success • Skeptical • Value of personality is minimal