Physical Activity and the Self

1. Physical Activity and the Self EPHE 348

2. Structure of the Self • Self is a complex multidimensional issue • We are both descriptive and evaluative

3. The Self • Self-esteem – evaluation of self in a positive or negative frame • Self-concept – descriptive attributes of the self

4. Importance of the Self (Diener, 1984) • Key indicator of emotional stability • Closely allied to happiness • Linked to independence, leadership, success • Beyond basic needs, the search for self-esteem is probably the most powerful of human motivating forces (Fox, 2000)

5. Structure of the Self • Top self-esteem • Below – multiple facets of self • All aspects of the self influence esteem • Harter (1982)– people need at least one strong facet of the self for high self-esteem (physical, cognitive, social, behavioral)

6. Self Esteem Physical Self-Esteem Sport Competence Physical Strength Physical Condition Body Image Soccer Competence Upper Body Strength Mile Run Social Physique Anxiety Arm Strength Aerobic Capacity Feeling of Fatness Scoring Ability Shooting Self-Efficacy Forearm Curls Efficacy for Pace Total Weight Figure 5.2

7. Physical Self • Of key importance because it represents our interface with the physical world • Critical in self-rating because of communication and sexuality

8. Measures • General SE scales (e.g., Rosenberg) • Specific Domain scales (e.g. Harter, Marsh, Fox & Corbin) • Physical Self Perception Profile • Perceived Competence Scale • Physical Self-Description Scale • Highly specific measures (body type, physical self-efficacy)

9. PA & Self-Esteem • Over 100 studies and several reviews • Research began in early 70s and continues at about 1-2 RCTs per year

10. Fox, 2000 • Exercise can be used to increase physical self-worth and related constructs (78% of studies significant) • Self-esteem changed in less than 50% • Positive changes in all ages and by men & women • Effects are better for those low in SE

11. Spence et al. 2005 • 113 SE studies in meta-analysis • Overall effect d = .23 • Program, SE level, age, sex, population, health status, measures, type of control group, exercise mode did not matter • Difference from change in fitness

12. Research Focus • Examined the effect of a multiple school-based physical activity program on perceived competencies across five measurement periods totaling 15 months • Participants were 344 nine to eleven year-olds who completed Harter’s perceived competence scale for children. • School-time physical activity was measured using physical activity log-books. Schools interested in participating were randomized to experimental and control conditions (total = 10 schools)

13. Research Focus Cont.. • Repeated Measures Analyses of Variance suggested a significant time x condition effect for school physical activity in favor of the experimental condition (p < .05). • A significant time effect was found for athletic competence, social competence, academic competence, and general self-esteem. Specifically, perceived competencies decreased across the 15 months of the trial. • The condition x time interaction was not significant (p > .05) for any of the competency outcomes. Results were invariant of age, gender, race, and prior physical activity status.

14. Research Focus Cont… • These data suggest that the program was successful in increasing school-time physical activity, but did not affect competencies. • Indeed, participants became increasingly critical of their perceived self as they approached early adolescence. • Rhodes, R.E. & McKay, H.A. (2004). SELF-ESTEEM AND COMPETENCY OUTCOMES AMONG 4TH TO 6TH GRADE STUDENTS ACROSS 15 MONTHS. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 29, S067.

15. Research Focus (mazzoni et al. in press) • Exploring the effect of a 12 week rock climbing experience on children with special needs • Participants randomized to condition or weight list control • Differences in climbing efficacy were significant (across time and group) but not differences in self-esteem and competencies

16. PA & Body Image • A major issue in the SE / PA relationship • Body image – the self-perceptions an individual holds with respect to his or her body and physical appearance • Women have greater body dissatisfaction than men and the rates for both genders are continually increasing

17. PA & Body image • In general, PA is associated with more body satisfaction • The % of dissatisfied is still staggeringly high • 2/3 of males • 9/10 of females

18. PA & Self-Presentation Concerns • Defn – attempts to present / omit certain aspects of self • Social physique anxiety – degree of body presentation discomfort • SPA – influences exercise motives, participation • SPA – can be reduced by large groups of those similar and increasing familiarity with PA

19. Research Focus • The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of a health-based versus appearance-based persuasive message on exercise attitudes and intentions and to determine if these effects were moderated by the personality trait of self-monitoring • 207 undergraduate students completed the self-monitoring questionnaire and read either persuasive messages of physical appearance advantages or health benefits of exercise before completing measures of exercise attitude and intention.

20. Research Focus • The results of this 2(self-monitoring) X 2(message-type) MANOVA on the dependent variables of attitude and intention was significant (p<.05). • Follow-up univariate F-tests revealed the attitude interaction as the significant effect (p = <.05). • Post-hoc analysis found low self-monitoring individuals responded with significantly higher attitude scores from exposure to the health-based message than the appearance-based message. As well, the health-based message produced significantly higher attitude scores among low self-monitors than high. • Rhodes, R.E. & Courneya, K.S. (2000). Effects of a health-based versus appearance-based persuasive message on attitudes towards exercise: Testing the moderating role of self-monitoring. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 15, 321-330.

21. Research Focus