Lecture 4

1. Lecture 4 Word-making and Word-marking

2. Morphology 形态学

3. Morpheme • A morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit. • A morpheme is the minimal unit of meaning • Free morphemes: those which can occur on their own as separate words, e.g.luck • Bound morphemes: those which cannot occur on their own as separate words, e.g. -y  lucky

4. Bound morphemes • affix : prefix undorevisit suffix desirablewriter infix 收了工吃完饭

5. as bound morpheme monogamy bigamy digamy receive perceive conceive as free morpheme catty gam marriage ceive  no corresponding free morpheme root

6. Morphemes are single, irreducible, meaningful pieces • Usually, a Chinese character is a morpheme: free morpheme 学；跑 bound morpheme 过；们 • A few Chinese morphemes consist of more than one character: 葡萄； 参差

7. Nouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs Conjunctions Prepositions Articles Pronouns Open classes 开放项列 New words can be added to these classes. They are all content words/ lexical words Closed classes 封闭项列 New words are not usually added to them. They are function words/ structural words. Also closed class words, but not function words. Two word categories

8. Morphology The study of the processes by which morphemes combine to form words.

9. Inflectional morphology In many languages, the forms of a word vary, in order to express such contrasts as number, gender, case and tense. e.g. -ed, -s, -er

10. in+sincere  insincere soft+en  soften smoke+fog  smog day+dream  daydream refrigerator  fridge table  to table affixation blending compounding clipping conversion Derivational morphology

11. However, there is no neat one-to-one correspondence between the grammatical alterations in a word’s form and meanings thereby conveyed. Examples ––––––

12. aspect • John is driving very fast. • John is always driving very fast. • continuous aspect  habitual aspect

13. the boy’s friend the boy’s release A week’s leave genitive/possessive patient duration case

14. athletics news Wheat oats singular in meaning uncountable countable number similar plants

15. Doctor (to patient): How are we today? Wife: How’s my husband? Husband: He’s hungry. Secretary (to friend, about the boss): We’re not in a good mood today. I’m packed. weyou he I we he I it (luggage) person

16. (headline) Minister dies I’m leaving tomorrow. The ship sails at 10 a.m. tomorrow. The ancients did not know that Africa was a continent. Present tense  past time Present tense  future time Past tense – permanent state tense

17. She has a car. *A car is had by her. He was said to be angry. Someone said him to be angry. The fish is cooking. without a passive voice without an active voice active  passive voice

18. Isolating language 孤立语 Inflecting language 屈折语 Agglutinating language 粘着语 All the words are invariable The internal structure of the words are variable A word typically consists of a neat linear sequence of morphemes, all clearly recognizable Three morphological types of language

19. Isolating language 孤立语 Inflecting language 屈折语 Agglutinating language 粘着语 Mamamama 麻妈骂马 adj+n+v+n A pockmarked lady scolds a horse. ngirruunthingapukani ngi – I; rru – PAST TENSE; unthing – for some time; apu – eat; kani – repeatedly = I kept on eating. (a word in Tiwi) Three morphological types of language

20. What sort of language is English? English is a Germanic language, according to the genetic method of classification. But from a typological viewpoint, English is in fact more similar to an isolating language like Chinese than Latin: there are few inflectional endings, and word-order changes are the basis of the grammar.

21. Three-in-one • Isolating: The boy will ask the girl. The girl will ask the boy. • Inflecting: The biggest boys have been asking. • Agglutinating: antidisestablishmentarianism 反对英国国教与政治分离的主张 – D. Crystal

22. Meaning limiting Oppositional Modificational Cause-effect 毛笔 摇篮 买卖 是非 国营 坐视 打倒 推翻 Chinese morphological features

23. Compounds 冬瓜 装卸工 绿豆 大方 龙头 文件 皮夹 Phrase 冬雪 装卸工人 绿叶 大方桌 水龙头 文件夹 皮夹子 冯胜利：prosodic structure 韵律结构 复合词 vs 短语

24. 日出 打铁 化石 看准 金石 主谓关系 述宾关系 偏正关系 述补关系 联合关系 传统研究：朱德熙的分类

25. Category I： 改变词性；分布有限 e.g. 第 第一 非 非人 度 湿度 化 丑化 Category II： 标记语法信息，分布自由 e.g. 着 看着 了 做了 过 见过 Functional bound morphemes

26. 汉语形态—义随构变 • 风化： 偏正结构 例：岩石风化得厉害。 联合结构 例：这样做有伤风化。 • 估价： 动宾结构 例：这块砚台很难估价。 联合结构 例：怎样估价他的表现？ • 生气： 动宾结构 例：您别生气。 偏正结构 例：生气勃勃 • 题词： 动宾结构 例：请名人题词 • 偏正结构 例： 张三的题词

27. 汉语形态– 以字组词 • 同学 同学不同班 同过四年学 • 随便 我随便你 随你的便 • 将军 将你一军 • 慷慨 慷国家之慨 • 滑稽 滑天下之大稽

28. L1 Transfer • 1930s Pidgin English in Shanghai qualify quali得fy （配得上）， quali不fy （配不上） (from Chao Yenren)

29. metaphoric allusive institutionalized I’m really tied up. It’s a piece of cake. The ruling party met its Waterloo in the new election. in the days to come second to none as much as possible I see what you mean. It’s very kind of you to say so. It’s my fault. idiomatic chunks.

30. Collocation v+n. n+pp have a try make a phone call take a risk do one’s hair hit the spot a nail in the wall a cabin on the farm, Other idiomatic knowledge

31. 以当代语言学的观点和方法研究汉语 石定栩， 宣力 动词的虚化过程：“来” 和 “去”

32. 词汇的虚化 逐步丧失具体的意义，变为泛指词汇， 再一步步转为专司句法职能的功能词汇， 然后进一步成为形态标记甚至零形式。例： have a pen have a letter; have a try have done done

33. 一价趋向义 二价趋向义 三价趋向义 一价趋向义施事后置 请到我们村来。 请到我们村去。 生意来了。 请准时来学校报到。 公司去了三辆车接她们 贵校月前来函我处，商借礼堂。 家里来客人了 前天去了三个技术员 实意动词（表示趋向）价（valent)

34. 动词+趋向 老板拿来了几条活鱼。 老王给女儿捎去了一点钱。 搬进来一张桌子。 推出去一辆摩托车。

35. 演变为通用动词 • 来一个《霸王别姬》。 • 来一张《霸王别姬》。 • 来几本好看点的。 • 你们几个先来张集体照。 • 他那天来了个一问三不知。

36. 演变为表示意愿的虚义动词“来” • 我来切蛋糕。（比较：我去切蛋糕。） • 我来（付帐）。 • 我们来办吧。 比较：我来厨房切蛋糕。 我来过厨房切蛋糕。 *我来过切蛋糕。

37. 表示祈使的虚义动词 • 这件事你们来研究研究。 • 这件事你们去研究研究

38. 在句末做语气助词的“去” 我们到内蒙骑马去。 我们看电影去。 不能说：我们看电影去过。 我们开车去。 （歧义） 我们开车去过。 （没有歧义）

39. 虚词的发展方向 实意动词  通用动词  能愿动词  语气助词

40. 启发与尝试 寻找汉语的某个特点，大量收集语料， 找出规律。 例：汉语的谓词修饰： 能否尽可能多地找出汉语形容词的叠音修饰

41. 例： 修饰形容词 （只可后置）绿油油 羞答答 娇滴滴 活脱脱 怯生生 明晃晃 好端端 （也可前置）响当当  当当响 平展展展展平（勉强） （被修饰词也叠音）大大咧咧 大咧咧*大咧（比较：罗罗嗦嗦罗嗦 急急忙忙急忙 清清白白清白； 唯唯诺诺*唯喏）

42. 修饰动词： 炯炯有神 娓娓道来 比较：虎虎生威虎虎有生气 动词叠音：打打闹闹 修修补补

43. 问题分解 叠音词会使人得到什么样的感受？ 这些词能否被其他词取代？ 若不能，则是表述的基本词； 若能，则看它们在大多数情况下是否首选词，若是，则也是表述的基本词； 它们是否只用于某些语境，某些文体，某些人群内部的交际？若是，则是语域标志词； 这些词古代用不用？在当代是用得更多了还是较少了？

44. bye bye