Composition 9

1. Composition 9 The Writing Process

2. The Last Step One of the last steps in our curriculum is to discuss exactly how to write a proper essay. This will take a while and require quite a bit of work. Be ready.

3. Different Kinds of Essays • Not all essays are the same. There are four major kinds of essays that we will discuss, as these are the major ones that you will be responsible for writing during your time at Hayes. Please note that these categories are not mutually exclusive, meaning that the categories may sometimes combine and bleed into each other, depending on what your particular assignment may be. • Personal Essay • Comparison/Contrast Essay • Persuasive Essay • Literary Analysis

4. Personal Essay • Follow along on text page 49. • A personal essay recollects a particular time or event in your life in order to show what you have learned from the experience(s). • It entertains and informs the reader in order to get them to think about you and your particular story. • The details included about the event being discussed should build towards a closing that truly shows how you have grown from the experience described. • Most essays required in the college application process are personal essays. • We will read the passage on text pages 50 to 53 in order to see how a professional writer would approach this kind of writing. • We will take a look at a sample personal essay on text pages 67-68.

5. Comparison/Contrast Essay • Follow along on text page 177. • An essay of comparison and contrast shows the similarities and differences between two or more subjects from the same category, including books, movies, people, and products. • You should make sure that you are making a point that will be somewhat surprising to the reader, not one that they will be able to foresee just by knowing what your subjects are. • We will read the passage on text pages 178 to 179 in order to see how a professional writer would approach this kind of writing. • We will take a look at a sample comparison/contrast essay on text pages 193-195.

6. Persuasive Essay • Follow along on text page 129. • Every essay that you write should be a persuasive essay, as these make an argument that seeks to convince readers to share the writer’s point of view about a particular subject. • The structure of a persuasive essay is extremely important to the effectiveness of the argument. The information in the essay should flow pretty much from general information to more specific information. • We will read the passage on text pages 130-134 in order to see how a professional writer would approach this kind of writing. • We will take a look at a sample persuasive essay on text pages 148-150.

7. Literary Analysis • Follow along on text page 281. • A literary analysis can take many forms. The most common one for students is a thematic essay, which asks that students analyze a piece of literature in order to prove that the author has a message that is shown by the plot and the different literary elements used by the author. This message is typically some sort of theme, such as injustice, pride, or betrayal. • A good literary analysis is focused and does not waste valuable space on useless plot summary, except when it is absolutely central to the main argument of the essay. • We will read the passage on text pages 282 to 285 in order to see how a professional writer would approach this kind of writing. • We will take a look at a sample literary analysis on text pages 300-302. • You should prepare for a quiz concerning the different kinds of essays that we have discussed.

8. Literary Terms • When you are called upon to do some kind of literary analysis, it is useful to keep in mind some of the literary terms and definitions that will help you categorize literature and understand the intentions of the authors whose work you are reading. • With this in mind, we will conduct a review of literary terms over the next few days.

9. Allegory-Anecdote • Allegory • Story in which people, things, and actions represent an idea or a generalization about life • Every part of the story must represent something in real life, or the story is not an allegory. • Analogy • Comparison of two or more similar objects, suggesting that if they are alike in some ways, they will probably be alike in others • Example: Foot is to toe as hand is to finger • Anecdote • Short summary of a humorous event that is used to make a point • Anecdotes are often relied on by parents and teachers to persuade people to follow directions. • Anecdotal evidence is based on one occurrence. Statistical evidence is based on many occurrences and is therefore more reliable.

10. Antagonist Person or thing working against the hero

11. Caricature Picture or imitation of a person’s features or mannerisms exaggerated in a comic or absurd way

12. Characterization-Conflict • Characterization • Method an author uses to reveal characters and their personalities • Direct characterization involves an author simply stating a characteristic of a character, whereas indirect characterization involves an implication by the author and an inference by the reader. • Climax • Most intense point in story that struggles and conflicts in story build towards • Comedy • Literature that ends on a happy note and shows human errors and problems in funny ways • Note that this has nothing to do with whether the author intends the story to be funny. This is different from the modern definition of comedy. • Conflict • Initial problem or struggle that triggers the action in a story or play

13. Denouement-Epiphany • Denouement • Final resolution or outcome of play or story • Didactic Literature • Presents a moral or religious statement • Examples: Jesus’ parables • Epigram • Brief, witty saying or poem that deals with its subject in a humorous way • Example: I'm tired of Love; I'm still more tired of Rhyme. But Money gives me pleasure all the time. • Epiphany • Sudden moment of understanding that causes a character to change or act in a certain way • Example: Paul falling off his donkey in the Bible

14. Diction Diction refers to an author’s choice of words. This can influence a reader’s experience of a piece of literature and can be used to help establish setting and tone. • Archaic Diction  Old-fashioned words that no longer seem natural • Often used by an author to establish a setting in the past • Examples: Thee, thou, thy • Colloquial Diction  Words or expressions usually accepted in informal situations or certain locations • Anyone can understand colloquial language; you just wouldn’t use it at a job interview. • Example: What’s up? • Jargon  Specialized language used by a specific group • Examples: 10-4, roger that, 187, JUG • Slang  Informal language used by a particular group • Examples: hotbox, scrilla, you tight • Profanity  Language disrespectful towards someone or something considered holy or sacred • Examples: goddammit, holy shit • Vulgarity  Language generally considered crude or offensive • Examples: fuck, shit, dick

15. Drama Plays in general or serious plays that deal with leading character’s relationship to society Again, note that this is very different from the modern definition of drama.

16. Epic Long narrative poem that tells of the deeds or adventures of a hero This is very different from the modern definition of epic.

17. Epitaph-Exposition • Epitaph • Short poem or verse written in memory of someone • These are often inscribed on tombstones. • Epithet • Word or phrase used in place of a person’s name • These can be good, bad, or neutral. • Examples: The King, Fat-ass, Frank • Essay • Piece of prose that expresses the author’s point of view • Prose is differentiated from poetry by the fact that poetic writing involves metre, a breaking down of the writing so that it has a rhythm defined by there being a certain number of “beats” per line. • Exposition • Writing that intends to explain something that might be difficult to understand, as in a descriptive essay • In a play or story, it is background information regarding the play or story.

18. Fable-Foil • Fable • Short fictional narrative that teaches a lesson • Example: Story of the boy who cried wolf • Falling Action • Part of play or story that works out decision arrived at during climax • Figurative Language • Language used to create a special effect or feeling • This is the opposite of literal language and is often used by an author to get a reader invested in the characters, not necessarily to advance the plot. • Example: You should keep your eye out for him. • Foil • Someone who serves as a contrast or challenge to another character • An author utilizes a foil in order to highlight certain characteristics of a particular character, • Example: Antony serves as a foil for Brutus.

19. Foreshadowing Giving hints or clues of what will happen later in the story This is different from starting a story at the end and flashing back to the beginning (as is done in 300). That is not foreshadowing because it is more than just a hint. Example: If late in the story there will be a ghost in the attic, early in the story a director might have a character who thinks they hear something in the attic, but it turns out to be nothing.

20. Figure of Speech There are seven major figures of speech. These are literary devices that create special effects or feelings by making interesting or creative comparisons in particular ways. • Antithesis- Opposition or contrast of ideas • When there is need of silence, you speak, and when there is need of speech, you are dumb. • Hyperbole- Exaggeration or overstatement • He is ten times taller than I am. • Understatement- Emphasizing an idea by talking about it in a restrained way • “You are a bit taller than I am,” said the midget to the giant. • Metaphor- Comparison of two unlike things without use of word of comparison • She cried a river of tears. • Simile- Comparison of two unlike things using “like” or “as” • Her tears were like a river of tears. • Metonymy- Substituting one word for another related word, usually when part of something is used to represent the entire thing • After the war began, the king’s sails set out for Greece. • Personification- Speaking of or describing an animal, object, or idea as if it is a person • I danced with the rain, and it was a very good partner.

21. Genre-Memoir • Genre • Category or type of literature based on style and form • Examples: fiction, non-fiction, biography, etc. • Imagery • Use of words to create a certain picture in a reader’s mind • Example: The walls were the color of freshly spilled blood and towered over the terrified captives. • Irony (Verbal) • Use of word or phrase to mean the exact opposite of its literal or normal meaning • Verbal irony is often used as a teaching tool in order to encourage people to do better. • Example: Good job! You got a 55 on the test! Way to go! • Malapropism • Pun or play on words that results from two words becoming jumbled in the reader’s mind • These are often the result of words that sound similar getting jumbled up. • Example: The president is decided by a count of electrical votes. (Electrical = Electoral) • Memoir • Writing based on writer’s memory of a particular time, place, or incident

22. Hubris Excessive pride that, in Greek tragedy, is often the tragic flaw that leads to the downfall of the tragic hero (like Caesar)

23. Mood-Myth • Mood • Feeling a text arouses in a reader • This can change from reader to reader, as different people have different reactions to things. • Moral • Particular value or lesson an author is trying to get across • Example: “Don’t lie” is the moral of the story of the boy who cried wolf. • Motif • Often-repeated theme or idea in literature • Motifs exist because across time and history, they reflect real-life experiences. This is how they come to exist and why they continue to be used. • Examples: lightning = bad omen ; water = rebirth ; darkness = danger • Myth • Traditional story that attempts to justify a certain practice or explain a certain phenomenon • Cultures come up with myths to explain parts of their worlds that they cannot understand. They are not as necessary now as they were before because science can now explain things in a much better way than myths used to. • Example: The story of Adam and Eve answers the question, “Why do we die?”

24. Narrator-Oxymoron • Narrator • Person telling the story • This person can either be one of the characters or not. • Novel • Lengthy fictional story with a plot revealed by speech, actions, and thoughts of characters • This is different from a play, in which the plot is not advanced by the thoughts of the characters because the audience has no access to those thoughts. • Oxymoron • Combination of contradictory terms • Examples: dry ice ; icy hot ; little giant ; new retro

25. Parable-Picaresque Novel • Parable • Short descriptive story that illustrates a particular belief or moral • Parables are one example of didactic literature; Jesus told a lot of these. • Paradox • Statement that seems to contradict common sense, but may be true • Paradoxes are often thought of as situational irony, meaning that they are things that occur when it seems like the opposite should happen. • Example: Getting into a car accident and having the airbag kill you when the crash happens • Parody • Form of literature that intentionally uses comic effect to mock a literary work or style • Examples: The “Scary Movie” or “Epic Movie” franchise

26. Pathetic Fallacy-Pseudonym • Pathetic Fallacy • Form of personification that gives human traits to nature • This is often seen in poetry when characters or authors are being overly emotional. • Example: The rushing river seemed to be sympathizing with my sadness, reflecting my sorrows from its depths. • Picaresque Novel • Work of fiction consisting of lengthy strings of loosely connected events, often centered around a rogue living by his or her wits • This is not like episodes of a TV show; rather, it is more like a story about a hero floating down a river and getting on and off a raft, having adventures each time before just getting back on the raft and moving on. • Examples: Tom Sawyer ; Huckleberry Finn • Plot • Action or sequence of events in a story • Pseudonym • Name a writer uses in place of his or her real name • Writers use pseudonyms either to hide their true identities for safety reasons or just because they’d rather not have all of the attention that being an author can bring. These are also called “pen names.” • Examples: Samuel Clemens = Mark Twain ; Charles Dodgson = Lewis Carroll ; Daniel Handler = Lemony Snicket

27. Pathos Describes part in play or story intended to elicit pity or sorrow from audience or reader. One example would be Batman losing his love (Rachel) in The Dark Knight.

28. Ethos, Logos, and Pathos in Rhetoric Rhetoric refers to methods of argument used by authors, philosophers, politicians, or anyone involved in disagreements. Based on the audience and the speaker, different methods may be effective at different times. • Ethos- Argument that seeks to convince listeners by appealing to their sense of right and wrong (ethics) • Example: A person who is pro-abortion saying they are “pro-choice” and a person saying they are anti-abortion saying they are “pro-life” • Logos- Argument that seeks to convince listeners by appealing to their ideas about what makes sense (logic) • Example: If guns were outlawed, people would no longer be able to legally purchase them, which would greatly reduce the number of homicides and armed robberies in the country. • Pathos- Argument that seeks to convince listeners by appealing to their emotions • Example: Calling your political enemies an “Axis of Evil” in order to convince people to let you do what you want by making them afraid of any other choices

29. Realism-Romanticism • Realism • Literature that attempts to present life as it really is • Realistic writing tends to be gritty and focus on negative aspects of society in order to bring about change. • Example: Night by Elie Wiesel is his story during the Holocaust • Rising Action • Series of struggles that builds a story or play towards its climax • Romanticism • Literary movement emphasizing imagination and emotions • Romantic writing tends to be less negative than realistic writing and creates alternate worlds so that readers can escape from their problems in the real world and focus on something else. • Example: The Harry Potter series

30. Poetic Justice Character getting what he deserves in the end of the story, especially when his or her plot backfires. This is most often seen in a very negative way, not a positive one.

31. Plot Line Graphic display of action or events in a story: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, denouement (resolution). The plot line maps out the amount of tension in each part of the story.

32. Point of View Point of view refers to the vantage point from which a story is told. There are two major points of view: first- person and third-person. However, there are three different kinds of third-person points of view. • First-person point of view • Story is told by one of the characters • This tends to get the reader more emotionally connected to the characters. • Example: I sadly watched him leave the room. • Third-person point of view • Story is told by someone outside the story • This tends to build suspense. • Third-person omniscient view allows narrator to share thoughts and feelings of all characters • Example: She sadly watched him leave the room; he was thrilled. • Third-person limited omniscientview allows narrator to share thoughts and feelings of only one character • Example: She sadly watched him leave the room. • Third-person camera (objective) view allows narrator to record action from his of her point of view, being unaware of any characters’ thoughts or feelings • Example: She watched him leave the room.

33. Protagonist Main character or hero of the story. The protagonist does not necessarily have to be a morally good person; this title is determined purely by the author’s choices.

34. Quest Features main character seeking to find something or achieve a goal, encountering and overcoming many obstacles along the way, allowing him or her to return from the quest wiser and more experienced. Oftentimes, the characters fail to achieve their set goal, but it ends up not mattering because they learn so much along the way.

35. Sarcasm-Setting • Sarcasm • Use of praise to mock someone or something • This is different from verbal irony in two senses. First, whereas verbal irony is just saying one thing when you mean the opposite, sarcasm is specifically saying something is good when you mean that it is bad. Secondly, whereas verbal irony can be used for many purposes, sarcasm is always intended only to make fun of whomever you happen to be speaking to or about. • Example: Calling a guy smart when you think that he is stupid and do not think he will ever get smarter. • Satire • Literary tone used to make fun of human vice or weakness with intention of changing the subject of the attack • Authors often write satires of their political leadership in order to get it to make different decisions. • Example: Any skit during which a political leader is made fun of • Setting • Time and place in which action of literary work occurs • Authors often communicate settings indirectly using language, styles of dress, etc. • Example: Rome (1st century B.C.E.)

36. Soliloquy-Style • Soliloquy • Speech delivered by character when he or she is alone on stage, often as if he or she is thinking out loud • This is also called a dramatic monologue and is necessary in plays because it is the only way for the audience to gain access to a character’s motivations and thoughts. • Stereotype • A form that does not change, as in a general rule that applies • Not all stereotypes are bad; they are just quick and easy ways for people to make decisions when they are too busy or lazy to actually get the information they need. • Examples: White people are rich; black people are good at basketball; Hispanics are good at baseball • Stream of Consciousness • Style of writing that records the thoughts and feelings of the writer as they occur • This is also called freewriting; it is often very hard to follow the plot of stream of consciousness writing because an author tends to use it when he is very involved emotionally in the writing. • Style • How author uses words, phrases, and sentences to form his or her ideas in a manner that often distinguishes him or her from other writers • An author with unique style can protect himself from plagiarism.

37. Slapstick Low comedy that includes exaggerated action. A playwright like Shakespeare would include some scenes with slapstick involved in order to keep the poor portions of his audience entertained, as they were often too uneducated to follow or care about the majority of the plot.

38. Symbol-Tragedy • Symbol • Person, place, thing, or event used to represent something else • Examples: bald eagle = freedom ; light = good ; green = “go” • Theme • Statement about life that an author is trying to get across, though he or she will not often state it in a direct way • Whereas a moral is a command, a theme is an idea. • Examples: injustice ; individualism vs. society ; selfishness vs. selflessness • Tone • Overall feeling or effect created by an author’s use of words • Unlike mood, tone is what the author intends the readers to feel when they read the story, and so the tone is the same even if the mood does not end up matching. • Tragedy • Literary work in which hero is destroyed by some flaw or by forces beyond his or her control • This has nothing to do with whether it is sad, unlike the modern definition. It is all about the death of the protagonist. • Example: Julius Caesar

39. Tragic Hero Character who experiences an inner struggle because of a tragic character flaw, such as hubris or excessive ambition. The struggle ends in the defeat of the hero. PREPARE FOR A QUIZ/TEST ON LITERARY TERMS!!!!!!

40. Steps to Take • While every writer is different and thus prefers to go about his or her business in different ways, there are a few steps that are essential for every writer to at least know and understand. Once you develop your own writing voice, you may safely tweak these in whatever way you see fit. • For now, however, there are five major steps that you should be willing to work with in order to ensure that what you end up writing is good enough to submit for a grade. • Prewriting • Drafting • Revising • Editing • Publishing

41. Prewriting • The prewriting stage can be broken down into a few major steps. • First Ideas  Brainstorming • Initial Organization  Clustering • Further Research/Details • Devising a Thesis Statement • Structuring  Outlining

42. First Ideas  Brainstorming • Once you have an initial subject, take 10 to 15 minutes to simply jot down whatever ideas and thoughts come to you as you think about your topic. You might be surprised how much you have to say about a topic when you just give yourself some time to think about it. • This will be your initial guide in terms of what you wish to say in your essay.

43. Initial Organization  Clustering • Once you have your initial ideas on paper, take some time to begin thinking about how to organize those thoughts and perhaps some others into paragraphs. • This is a graphic organization step that will springboard you into outlining. • On page 15 of the textbook, you can see one example of clusters. You can also do clusters using a T-chart. • The idea is to group similar ideas together in “clusters,” thus giving you the beginning of a structure that you will carry through in your first draft. • Basically, the number of clusters should be the same as the number of body paragraphs that you will need. The name of the cluster will be the topic of the topic sentence for that body paragraph. • We will work together on a subject, brainstorm, and cluster exercise.

44. Further Research/Details • Follow along on text page 850 for some basic guidelines. • Your next step is crucial, and it is one in which you must be extremely careful not to fall into a number of traps that high school students tend to fall into. • Now that you have a general idea of your topic and a general structure for your basic ideas about it, you must do some extra research concerning this topic, taking notes on your research as you go along. • As you do this research, be very careful to note what you might decide to use as a direct quotation or a paraphrase, also writing down all of the publication information for that kind of information, as doing so now will help you avoid plagiarism later. • Remember that not all information is good information, as there are a lot of things on the internet that are simply not true. Be very careful in terms of where you seek information. • Also remember that outside information must be built into your essay as support for your general ideas, not the other way around. In other words, your paper should never be a collection of other people’s words and ideas. You must weave other people’s thoughts and ideas into the tapestry of your argument. • ANY TIME THAT YOU USE SOMEONE ELSE’S WORK, YOU MUST CITE THEM AS A SOURCE. • Text page 854 has some information on parenthetical format. Text page 851 has information on Bibliography format. • We will do some basic research on our chosen subject to show you what I mean.

45. Forming a Thesis • Your next step is perhaps the most important one. Your thesis statement is your statement of what you are going to attempt to prove or show to your reader(s) in the body of the essay; it must also tell how you plan to prove it. • Your thesis statement should conclude your introductory paragraph, which should build gradually toward your thesis statement. It should flow from general to specific. • A good thesis statement acts as a roadmap to the rest of the paper, and a bad thesis statement almost always means a bad paper. • A good thesis statement is complete; it tells what you will prove and how you will prove it. • A good thesis statement is concise; it should be as short as you can make it without cutting out necessary information. • A good thesis statement is clear; it leaves no confusion as to what you seek to do. • A good thesis statement is strong; it makes its claim in a manner which shows the conviction of its author. • A good thesis statement is segmented; it is broken down by the arguments which the rest of the essay will make. It should have as many segments as there are body paragraphs or major sections. • We will now devise a thesis statement for our sample subject.

46. Structuring/Outlining • There is a sample outline structure on text page 795. • Your final prewriting step involves organizing all of your thoughts, research, and ideas into one document which will act as a blueprint to your paper. • Like your paragraphs, your outline will break all of your information down into segments that will go from general to specific and back again, almost like a slinky. • A good and thorough outline will help you avoid many mistakes later on. It will also make the writing itself much easier, as this is the portion that will demand the most attention and require the most thought. • During the outline, you should write in full the most important sentences (thesis, topic sentences, transition sentences) and leave the rest as words that will remind you what you must write about when you do your draft. • We will compose an outline for our sample topic. • We will also take a look at the documents that you will be asked to prewrite about for your prewriting test. • You should prepare for a test concerning the prewriting process.

47. Drafting • Follow along on text page 18. • Once you have completed all of your prewriting steps, you are ready to write your first draft. • A draft should follow the template laid out by your outline. If the prewriting steps are done correctly, writing the draft should be pretty easy. • You should do your best to insert extra thoughts and ideas if they are useful, but be careful not to include too much “fluff.” Keep it simple. • Don’t worry too much about grammar on your first draft; you can take care of the polishing when you revise and edit before submitting your final paper. • For each of your body paragraphs, make sure that your supporting details help prove your topic sentences and that your evidence sentences help prove your supporting details. • You will take a test that will ask you to use your outline from the previous test in order to compose a first draft.

48. Revising for Structure, Grammar, Content, and Usage • Please look at each sentence of your first draft and do the following: • Check that your sentences are in the proper places for the flow of the essay that your outline should have laid out. • Please check that each sentence has a purpose. • Please check that if you are stating “facts,” they are true and you have supported them using the right methods. • Please check that your sentences are as short as they can be. • Please check that you have used the proper punctuation for your essay. • Please check that you have avoided using the first and second person. • Please check that you have not asked any questions. • Please check that your sentences are in the active voice. • Please check that you said what you wanted to say in each sentence in a grammatically correct way. • Please check that your pronouns are clear. • Please check that your subjects and verbs agree.

49. Editing and Proofreading • Your task will be to turn this essay into a typed essay in MLA Format that has no more than ten errors of any kind per page. If it has more than ten errors per page, it is an automatic failure. • Try printing it out and reading it over out loud. This can help you catch a lot of mistakes. • Try switching papers with other students and adults to find each other’s errors. • Take your time and be patient; if you wait until the last minute and don’t do this the right way, you will absolutely fail.

50. Publishing • Print the paper early and have it ready to hand in by the due date. No excuses.